The Carlist Wars and the Reign of Isabella II
Carlism and the First Carlist War (1833-1840)
Following the death of King Ferdinand VII in 1833, a succession crisis arose. Ferdinand’s brother, Infante Carlos, claimed the throne based on the Salic Law, which prevented female inheritance. However, Ferdinand had abolished the Salic Law, paving the way for his daughter, Isabella II, to inherit. This sparked the First Carlist War.
Supporters of Don Carlos, known as Carlists, favored a traditional, absolutist monarchy. They found support primarily in the Basque Country, Navarre, Aragon, Catalonia, and Maestrazgo. Their ideology encompassed:
- Absolute monarchy
- Catholicism as the sole religion
- Idealized rural society, rejecting urban industrialization
- Defense of traditional Basque, Navarrese, and Catalan privileges
Key Carlist figures included Zumalacárregui and Cabrera. On the side of Isabella II (the Isabelinos or Liberals), General Espartero emerged as a prominent leader. The war concluded in 1840 with the Convention of Vergara, a peace agreement signed with Espartero.
Construction and Evolution of the Liberal State
Upon Ferdinand VII’s death, his widow, Maria Cristina de Borbón, served as regent until Isabella II came of age. To counter the Carlist threat, Maria Cristina sought the support of the Liberals, leading to numerous reforms.
The Royal Statute of 1834, a form of constitution, was enacted. However, it reserved significant power for the monarchy, including veto power and the right to convene and dissolve the Cortes (parliament). Liberals, desiring a more advanced constitution, pushed for further change. Following uprisings like the Sergeants’ Revolt at La Granja, the Constitution of 1837 was promulgated, establishing a parliamentary system similar to France and Belgium.
Key reforms during this period included:
- Confiscation of church property under Minister Mendizábal to pay public debts
- Abolition of primogeniture, allowing for the sale of aristocratic assets
- Abolition of the seigneurial regime, ending feudal privileges
Regency of General Espartero (1840-1843)
General Espartero, as regent and leader of the Progressive Liberals, implemented further liberalizing measures. However, these measures negatively impacted Catalan textile merchants, leading to unrest and demonstrations in Barcelona. Espartero’s harsh response, including the bombardment of Barcelona, led to his resignation and exile to England. To avoid another regency, Isabella II was declared of age at 14.
Reign of Isabella II (1843-1868)
Moderate Liberals (1843-1854)
General Narváez led the Moderate Liberals during this period. Key developments included the Concordat of 1851 with the Vatican, tax reform under Minister Alejandro Mon, the creation of the Civil Guard, adoption of the national flag and anthem, the 1845 Constitution, and the Moyano Law establishing compulsory education.
Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)
Following the pronunciamiento of General O’Donnell at Vicálvaro, the Progressives, led by Espartero, returned to power. This period saw further confiscations of church and municipal lands under Minister Pascual Madoz, the 1855 Railroad Law promoting railway construction, and the formation of the Liberal Union party.
Liberal Union and the End of Isabella II’s Reign
O’Donnell led the Liberal Union, a centrist party. His rule focused on restoring Spain’s international influence, including interventions in Morocco, Mexico, and Cochinchina. Economic difficulties, coupled with political opposition, led to the Pact of Ostend, signed by Progressives, Republicans, and Union Liberals, calling for Isabella II’s removal. In September 1868, Admiral Topete led a revolt in Cadiz, culminating in the Battle of Alcolea. Isabella II was subsequently exiled to France.