The Catalan Language: A Historical Overview
The Catalan Language: 18th to Early 20th Century
Repression and Resilience
The 18th century marked the beginning of a period of legal and political repression aimed at replacing Catalan with Spanish. The Decree of the Nueva Planta restructured social and political life, prohibiting the public use of Catalan and fostering a diglossic mentality, particularly in the North. However, Spanish authorities allowed Catalan to persist in certain domains, leading to a bilingual society.
The Renaixença (1833), starting with the publication of La Pàtria, attempted a cultural revival, albeit with limited success in Valencia and the Balearic Islands. Intellectuals sought to revitalize Catalan culture, and the Jocs Florals (1859) were reinstated. This resurgence faced repression, but Catalan identity persisted, with figures like Prat de la Riba gaining influence in the Provincial Council of Barcelona. Pompeu Fabra undertook significant efforts to standardize the Catalan language.
In the early 20th century, Catalan experienced normalization until the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, which severely curtailed its progress.
4/ Language and Society
Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics focuses on the relationship between language and society. It introduces the concept of a linguistic community, characterized by shared:
- Language/Standard
- Network of personal relationships
- Symbols
- Territory
Sociolinguistics also examines language use variations based on individual categories, situations, and themes, including terms of use like courtesy, education, elocution, and culinary language. Linguistic self-hatred refers to a negative attitude towards one’s own language community.
5/ Language Contact
Monolingualism and Bilingualism
Monolingualism describes a society where only one language is spoken. Bilingualism, where more than one language is dominant, can be categorized as:
- Individual bilingualism: Focuses on knowledge and use, encompassing symmetrical or asymmetrical bilingualism.
- Territorial bilingualism: Refers to an area with two distinct languages.
- Social bilingualism: Language choice is influenced by power dynamics and societal factors.
Diglossia and Language Minority
Diglossia occurs when two varieties of a language are used in different social spheres (formal vs. informal, as described by Ferguson in 1959, or specialized fields, as proposed by Fishman in 1971).
Language minority refers to the decline of a language due to the dominance of another. Minority languages have fewer speakers (e.g., Danish, Bulgarian, Swedish).
6/ Language Normalization
Language normalization aims to reorganize the functions of a language within a society to facilitate its recovery from a minority status. This process involves:
- Establishing a norm (standardized social uses of language).
- Creating a legal framework that supports the recovery of the minority language.
- Regaining political power to make key decisions.
- Engaging the community (crucial for success).
7/ Language Death
Causes and Stages
The number of languages has drastically declined over the past century, and this trend is projected to continue. Language death occurs when there are no competent speakers left. Language shift is the final stage of a process where a foreign language gradually replaces an established one.
The replacement process involves two main aspects:
- Linguistic structure: Phase 1: Massive incorporation of loanwords. Phase 2: Erosion of grammar and phonetics.
- Language use: Phase 1: Societal bilingualism with language hierarchization. Phase 2: Decline in intergenerational transmission, leading to the disappearance of the language from public life and its confinement to folkloric uses. Phase 3: Younger generations no longer acquire the language.
Causes of language death can be:
- Physical: Disappearance of the speakers.
- Social: Cultural assimilation, state consolidation, loss of power, demographic shifts, media influence, education policies, and urbanization.
Patois: A derogatory term used to refer to any distinctive language spoken in France.
The Language Under Franco
Repression and Resistance
With the entry of Franco’s troops into Barcelona in January 1939, a period of persecution and repression of Catalan began. Catalan was banned from public life, including primary and university education.
Linguistic Persecution
Catalan intellectuals and professionals were forced into exile or had to conceal their language use. The regime aimed to shift from a diglossic situation to complete language substitution.
Stages of Repression
- (1939-1944): The most severe and violent period.
- (1945-1953): Less violent but still dictatorial. International isolation began to weaken the regime.
- (1953-1975): Opposition grew, and arrangements became more common.
Pétainisme and Resistance
Collaboration between Catalan society and the Franco regime, known as Pétainisme, remains understudied. Many Catalans opted for silence, while intellectuals abroad formed the Catalan resistance. In the 1960s, a resurgence of Catalan identity emerged, with movements like the Nova Cançó paving the way for the normalization of the language.