The Catholic Monarchs and the Rise of Spain
The Catholic Monarchs: The Conquest of the Nazari Kingdom
Without conquering Granada, the Reconquista would not have been completed. The Catholic Monarchs, joining the forces of Aragon and Castile, built tensions in the Nazari kingdom. They conquered the area around Granada, leaving the city isolated. The war lasted ten years and was won diplomatically. King Boabdil signed the capitulation on January 2, 1492. The terms were generous but not sincere; they allowed Muslims (Moors) to remain in the kingdom with their own religion, laws, and authorities.
The peace did not last long. In 1499, the Queen and Cardinal Cisneros ordered forced conversions, prompting an uprising in the Alpujarras, which was crushed in 1500.
France and the Kingdom of Castile both desired Navarre. In 1512, Ferdinand used a diplomatic incident as a pretext to order the occupation of the kingdom. It was conquered by the Duke of Alba and annexed to Castile, retaining its institutions and privileges, as with other kingdoms.
State Organization under the Catholic Kings: Institutions and Government
In Castile, royal power strengthened. The Cortes lost importance, and weakly-called councils were created with legislative and judicial functions. These were directly dependent on lawyers and the monarchy, such as the Council of Castile or the Military Orders. In cities, the figure of the mayor, a royal representative with broad political, administrative, and financial powers, became important.
In Aragon, each kingdom maintained its institutions, but the king imposed two new ones: the viceroy, or royal deputy in each realm with executive and judicial powers; and the Council of Aragon (1494), serving as an advisory body and, in some realms, as the Supreme Court.
The only body with jurisdiction across all realms was the Inquisition, an ecclesiastical court responsible for ensuring the orthodoxy of Catholicism.
The Catholic Monarchs’ Outreach: Italian and North African Politics
Aragon and Naples had to defend against the expansionist attempts of the French king, Charles VIII. Spanish victories, led by the Grand Master, at Cerignola, Garigliano, and Gaeta, repelled the French threat.
Concerned that the African coast could disrupt communications between Spain and Italy, the Spaniards viewed North African conquests as a continuation of Aragonese expansion in the area. This began in 1497 with the capture of Melilla. Later, aided by Cisneros, Ferdinand launched expeditions to the Mediterranean coast of Africa, taking Mazalquivir, the Rock of Gomara, and between 1509 and 1511, Oran, Bejaia, Algiers, and Tripoli. However, after the defeat at the Djerba islands in 1511, only a few strongholds remained, and piracy in North Africa continued.
The Discovery of America
Christopher Columbus’s project to reach India by sailing west, to avoid the Turks and pirates controlling the eastern Mediterranean trade route, led to the discovery of America. After being rejected by John II of Portugal, he presented his plan to the Catholic Monarchs. They signed the Capitulations of Santa Fe, making Columbus admiral of the islands and mainland, as well as viceroy and governor.
Columbus sailed from Palos (Huelva) on August 3, 1492, and after a stopover in the Canary Islands, arrived on October 12 at the island of Guanahani, which he named San Salvador. Before returning, he discovered Juana (Cuba) and Hispaniola (Dominican Republic). Columbus made three more voyages between 1493 and 1502, dying in 1506 convinced he had reached India. Later voyages revealed it was not Asia but a New World, offering great economic opportunities.
Conquest and Colonization
Initially, the great American empires were conquered: Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztec Empire (1519-1521), and Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire (1533). Subsequently, Central and South America (except Brazil) and parts of southern North America were incorporated.
After the conquest, colonization and resource exploitation began. Trade was conducted as a monopoly, directed by the House of Seville.
American resources were exploited through the encomienda system, which involved the distribution of Indigenous people among settlers. Another system was the mita, of Inca origin, requiring a portion of workers from each village to work in mines in exchange for wages.
Due to abuses and allegations of mistreatment of Indigenous people, the New Laws were enacted in 1542 to regulate the encomienda system, but they were ineffective.
Impact of America on Spain
Economically, the American conquest financed the Castilian hegemony in Europe during the 16th century. New plants and food products were introduced, boosting trade (e.g., corn, potatoes, tomatoes, cocoa, and tobacco). The Mediterranean trade routes lost importance to the Atlantic, and the influx of precious metals caused sharp price increases.
Culturally, it promoted the development of new sciences such as cartography, geography, and biology. Demographically, it involved the migration of approximately 2,000 people annually to the new continent. Socially, it generated a debate on the exploitation of Indigenous people, with protests from Church members like Bartolomé de las Casas.
The Empire of Charles V: Internal Conflict—The Comuneros and Germanías
The Comuneros of Castile (1519-1521) had various motivations: the common people opposed the Castilian nobility and subordination to the interests of the Holy Roman Empire; the nobility sought to retain their privileges against the Flemish nobility accompanying the king; and city representatives aimed to reduce the power of the monarch and nobility. The king made concessions to the nobility and allied with them to end the uprising. After the Battle of Villalar (1521), leaders Padilla, Bravo, and Maldonado were executed, and the rebellion was suppressed.
The Germanías in Valencia and Mallorca were social movements. In 1520, artisans and small landowners attempted to seize power in cities controlled by the wealthiest nobles and burghers. The royal army and nobility quelled the rebellion in 1521.
The Hispanic Monarchy of Philip II: Iberian Unity
Philip II remained on the Iberian Peninsula, focusing on his vast Hispanic empire. Spanish hegemony in Europe was consolidated. His policies centered on: rivalry with France; the fight against the Turks; religious issues that led to rebellion in Flanders; conflict with England; and the control and administration of the American territories.
In 1580, Portugal joined the empire after the death of King Sebastian left no heirs, with Philip, son of Isabel of Portugal, inheriting the throne. This fulfilled the desire of the Catholic Monarchs for Iberian unity.
The Kingdom of Portugal maintained its institutions, courts, laws, currency, language, independent taxation, customs, etc. It was not a political unit; only the monarch was shared with Castile.