The Catholic Monarchs: Unification and Expansion of Spain
The Catholic Monarchs: A Dynastic Union
After a civil war with Juana la Beltraneja, Isabella of Castile ascended to the throne. To gain more political support, Isabella married Ferdinand of Aragon, who was then proclaimed King of Castile. This union was dynastic; the realms remained separate but under the joint rule of both monarchs.
Upon Isabella’s death, the crown of Castile passed to their daughter Joanna, known as Juana la Loca (Joanna the Mad). However, after disabling her and sending her to a convent, Charles V, grandson of the Catholic Monarchs, became the successor to both kingdoms.
Throughout history, Castile held more power than Aragon due to its larger territory, greater population, and the stronger authority wielded by the king compared to Aragon, where the courts held significant influence.
State Organization Under the Catholic Monarchs
The Catholic Monarchs initiated the modern Spanish state, particularly its administrative apparatus. They achieved territorial unification through the conquest of Granada and the incorporation of Navarre into Castile, effectively uniting the two kingdoms of Aragon and Castile. They also pursued religious unification.
In 1492, they mandated the conversion of all Jews, and in 1501, they did the same with Muslims. These conversions were overseen by the king through the Court of the Inquisition, which prosecuted false converts.
The monarchs also established a permanent, professional army known as the tercios, introducing infantry and artillery. To fund this army, they reformed the Royal Treasury, reclaiming taxes that had been usurped by the nobles.
They created a public administration bureaucracy, with councils governing the kingdom, such as the Council of Aragon and the Council of Finance.
The Catholic Monarchs sought to control the Church through royalist policies, exemplified by the right of presentation, allowing kings to nominate candidates for bishop positions. This law remained in effect until 1978.
Finally, they limited the power of the courts in Castile and the cities through the figure of the corregidor, a royal official presiding over the cities.
Outreach Under the Catholic Monarchs
Italian and North African Politics
Beyond the Iberian Peninsula, the Catholic Monarchs focused on two main areas:
- Italy: During the 16th century, France invaded Naples, a territory of the Crown of Aragon. The ensuing struggle between Spanish and French troops solidified Spanish rule over Naples.
- North Africa: Campaigns were launched to conquer cities and establish defensive enclaves to combat Barbary pirates. This led to the conquest of Melilla and Oran in 1497.
The Discovery of America
The Crown of Castile dedicated itself to exploratory voyages across the Atlantic, eventually conquering the Canary Islands. However, a treaty with Portugal restricted them from sailing further south.
Seeking new trade routes with the Indies, Christopher Columbus proposed reaching the East by sailing westward across the Atlantic. After being rejected by the King of Portugal, the Catholic Monarchs accepted his proposal after the conquest of Granada and signed the Capitulations of Santa Fe.
Funded by the monarchs and aided by the Pinzón brothers, Columbus set sail with three ships, reaching Guanahani (which they named San Salvador) on October 12, 1492.
Columbus never acknowledged reaching a new continent; the name America was later given by Amerigo Vespucci. Columbus’s voyages primarily explored the Caribbean islands, not the mainland continent.
The Spanish initiated settlement, creating a society similar to Castilian society, leading to the decline of indigenous populations, and importing black slaves from Africa.
The Discovery of America created a conflict between Spain and Portugal, resulting in the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1499. This treaty established a demarcation line, a meridian west of which the Spanish could sail. This agreement allowed the Portuguese to conquer Brazil.