The Church and Monasticism in Early Medieval Europe
The Life of Saint Benedict
Early Life and Hermitage
Born in Nursia, Italy, in 480, Saint Benedict belonged to a family of modest means and noble virtues. At a young age, he traveled to Rome to study rhetoric and law. He desired a successful career, but at the age of 20, he abandoned his ambitions and journeyed to Subiaco. There, he sought God in solitude and prayer, living as a hermit in a cave.
A Roman monk named Romano discovered Benedict and learned of his intention to lead a hermit’s life. Romano, who lived in a monastery, provided Benedict with clothing and food, guiding him to a remote and difficult-to-access cave. Benedict spent three years in seclusion, unknown to all except Romano, who kept his secret and delivered bread to the young hermit. During these three years, Benedict’s fame spread throughout the region.
Monasteries and the Rule of Saint Benedict
With several disciples, Benedict founded multiple monasteries in Subiaco. In 529, he sought refuge in Monte Cassino, a mountain located between Rome and Naples. Amidst the ruins of an ancient temple, he constructed two chapels and several shrines. Gradually, a large monastery emerged, from which the Benedictine Order would spread.
Benedict’s disciples lived together in a building governed by a prior. In 540, he wrote his renowned Rule, emphasizing prayer and work, encapsulated in the motto “Ora et Labora.” Saint Benedict’s reputation for sanctity, wisdom, and miracles extended far and wide. One notable encounter involved Totila, King of the Goths, whom Benedict rebuked for his misdeeds and warned of future consequences.
Saint Benedict passed away on March 21, 547, shortly after his sister. His final words were, “I must have longed to go to Heaven.” Pope Paul VI later declared him the patron saint of Europe. Today, numerous male and female monasteries and religious houses continue to live under the Rule of Saint Benedict.
Europe in the Early Middle Ages
The Time After the Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire and the barbarian invasions, Europe witnessed the disintegration of Germanic kingdoms. Weak hereditary monarchies governed fragmented territories. Cities were depopulated, and the rural economy and trade declined. The countryside became the primary source of wealth.
Life was harsh, characterized by high mortality rates, warfare, and disease. Feudal lords resided in castles, controlling vast rural estates. Christianity emerged as a unifying force.
Christianity, a Factor of Unity
While the majority of the Roman population was Christian, the Germanic peoples adhered to pagan religions. However, Germanic rulers like Clovis and Recared embraced Christianity, and their subjects gradually followed suit. Monasteries became centers of religious and cultural life.
Europe Becomes Christian
The conversion of numerous Germanic peoples who had invaded the Western Roman Empire’s territories marked a significant shift. Pagan religions gradually gave way to Christianity, with collective conversions becoming commonplace.
Christian Europe
Europe solidified as a Christian society, with the Pope and the Emperor as the dominant political powers. However, conflicts arose between these two authorities.
In 800, Pope Leo III sought to reestablish a Roman Empire under the banner of Christianity, but it proved short-lived. Pope John XII appealed to the Germans for assistance and crowned Otto I as Emperor in 962, thus establishing the Holy Roman Empire. The union of political power and the Church initially brought benefits, but after a century, the Church gained independence.
The Hispanic Church
During the 7th century, the Hispanic Church experienced a period of splendor under Andalusian rule. It flourished in doctrine, religious life, and the development of the Hispanic liturgy. Key figures in this era were Saint Leandro and Saint Isidore, Bishop of Seville.
Monasticism as a Source
Christians seeking solitude and poverty retreated to a life of monasticism. This practice grew rapidly in the East, with many hermits living in caves. Others gathered around prominent monks who became spiritual masters, such as Saint Anthony the Abbot and Saint Pachomius, who adapted the hermit’s lifestyle.
In the West, monasticism was introduced by Saint Benedict, who established monasteries where life revolved around shared work and prayer. One of the most famous was Monte Cassino in Italy, guided by the rule of “Ora et Labora.”
Life in Monasteries
Monastic life was centered on prayer and work, governed by the Rule. Monasteries were typically situated near water sources, away from populated areas. They consisted of various living quarters for the monks.
Religious practice was the monks’ primary activity. Manual labor in the fields or other tasks occupied several hours each day. The monks were led by an abbot (father) whom they obeyed. They cultivated respect, hospitality, brotherhood, and solidarity with the poor and disadvantaged.
Monasteries played a crucial role in preserving culture, providing education, and serving as pockets of civilization and learning.
Christianity and Islam
The Expansion of Islam
In the 7th century, a new religion emerged: Islam. Its founder, Muhammad, presented himself as a prophet and preached the belief in one God, Allah. The Quran serves as Islam’s holy book.
After Muhammad’s death, Islam spread rapidly throughout the Mediterranean basin, reaching regions that had not been Christianized. It extended to India, the shores of the Caspian Sea, the Iberian Peninsula, and the area around Jerusalem.
Christianity in Muslim Spain
Muslim rulers established a state called Al-Andalus in the southern Iberian Peninsula, with its capital in Cordoba. Some Christians converted to Islam, while others remained faithful to their religion and became known as Mozarabs.
Mozarabs were permitted to practice Christianity but had to pay taxes and could not hold public office. Many Christian churches were transformed into mosques. Mozarabic communities thrived in Cordoba, Toledo, and Zaragoza, maintaining their own liturgy known as the Hispano-Mozarabic Rite.
Conflict with the Civil Power
The Feudal Church
The Germanic invasions led to the disintegration of the existing social system, paving the way for feudalism. New relationships emerged between lords and vassals. Vassals swore allegiance to their lords in exchange for protection and the use of land.
Society was divided into three social groups: the nobility (knights), the clergy, and the common people (artisans and peasants). The Church became integrated into the feudal system.
Bishops acted as feudal lords, administering justice on their lands and commanding their own armies. However, they were also vassals of kings and feudal lords, who often appointed them. This practice was known as lay investiture, which raised concerns about the Church’s independence.
The Investiture Controversy
The civil power’s control over religious endowments reached alarming levels, leading to the Investiture Controversy. Pope Gregory VII forbade lay investiture and excommunicated Emperor Henry IV in 1075 for defying his decision.
The Concordat of Worms in 1122 resolved this conflict, establishing a balance between the Church and the civil authorities.
Romanesque Art
Romanesque art, which developed in Europe from the 11th to the 12th centuries, had monastic origins. Sculptures and paintings adorned the porches and capitals of churches, often depicting Christ as the Pantocrator.
Sculpture
Sculpture served to illustrate biblical narratives, decorate buildings, and teach the Christian faith to the people. It focused on symbolic representation and was primarily found on the exterior of churches.
The main entrance of churches became a focal point, inviting the faithful to approach God. Christ was often identified with the doorway itself.
Painting
Painting also played a role in conveying biblical stories. Frescoes covered the interiors of churches, creating an awe-inspiring atmosphere. Expressive gestures, intense colors, and depictions of Christ in Majesty were common features.
Alongside Christ as the Lord of the living and the dead, the four evangelists were frequently portrayed.
Other Ways of Being in the World
Assets in Contemplation
Gazing
Numerous monasteries and convents existed where monks and nuns dedicated their lives to prayer, silence, and work, isolated from the outside world.
Some questioned the societal contribution of these individuals, viewing their lifestyle as belonging to a bygone era. They did not operate schools or hospitals, nor did they lead catechism classes or youth groups. They lived within the confines of their convents without engaging in social work.
However, the goal of every follower of Jesus is to contribute to the establishment of God’s kingdom, and there are various ways to achieve this. The contemplative life is a path of drawing closer to God through prayer, sacrifice, and work. These individuals pray for all people in the world, seeking to make God’s kingdom a reality.
Christians in the World for a Better World
In addition to those dedicated to prayer and contemplation within monasteries, there are other forms of Christian engagement. These range from active religious congregations to volunteer work.
Over a million people dedicate their free time to helping those in need, including numerous missionaries. All Christians are immersed in the world, finding in Jesus and the Christian community a reason to work towards a better world by engaging in diverse tasks that benefit the most vulnerable.
The Mystery of the Church
Presence of Jesus
The Church originated on the day of Pentecost through the Holy Spirit. The Second Vatican Council affirms that the Church is the People of God, the Body of Christ, and the Temple of the Spirit.
The Church cannot be understood without reference to the three persons of the Holy Trinity. It is inhabited by the Holy Spirit, which has profound implications for Christian living. The Spirit is the gift of Jesus and guides all Christians to act like him.
The Church, Sacrament of Salvation
The Church’s mission is to make Christ present. However, the Church is not Christ himself but a reminder of his life and teachings. It presents Christ as the savior of humanity, and through the Church, Christ continues to save.
To express this mystery, theology has coined the expression: “The Church is the sacrament of salvation.” Church documents teach that the Church is a sacrament, a sign and instrument of intimate union with God and unity among all people.
The Church is Holy
Christ keeps his Church holy on earth and communicates truth and grace to all. The Church is holy because it is sanctified by Christ and enriched by the Holy Spirit. We are all called to holiness.