The City of God: Augustine’s Response to the Roman Empire’s Crisis
The Crisis of the Roman Empire
The Roman Empire faced a deep crisis, threatened by barbarians from outside and internal problems like economic and political instability, social unrest, and military anarchy. State intervention increased, turning citizens into subjects of a divinely appointed sovereign. The same year Theodosius divided the empire between his sons Honorius (West) and Arcadius (East), philosopher Augustine was appointed bishop of Hippo, and the Vandals invaded Tagaste.
East and West
Both parts of the Empire shared a political and administrative system, but discord persisted between them, and living conditions differed significantly. Despite a tendency towards division for better governance, the desire for a unified power never disappeared, leading to military uprisings supported by the opposing side.
Military Challenges
The regular army struggled to maintain border security even in peacetime. Reinforcements for attacked areas could only be drawn from other border troops. To address this, barbarian troops were integrated into the army, leading to the gradual adoption of their tactics. Infantry lost importance to cavalry, which primarily consisted of foreign troops. Additionally, these barbarian soldiers were prone to deserting and joining invading forces.
Economic and Social Decline
High taxes needed to support the army and administration ruined the peasantry. Terrified by barbarian incursions, peasants sought refuge within city walls or turned to banditry. In turn, city dwellers fled the tax burden for the countryside or barbarian-occupied lands. City life was profoundly altered. Large, self-sufficient farms became the only stable entities in rural areas, operating as autonomous feudal economies due to the weakened state.
Augustine’s Response: The City of God
Following the fall of Rome to Alaric in 410, pagans blamed Christianity for the Empire’s decline, accusing Christians of withdrawing from public life and being pacifists. Christians themselves felt overwhelmed: if Rome was sinking, would it drag the Church down with it?
Augustine felt compelled to respond and inspire courage. Between 413 and 426, he wrote City of God, a monumental, encyclopedic, and somewhat disorganized work. It explores the meaning of history from creation to the final judgment, following a linear rather than cyclical timeline (contrary to Greek thought, particularly Stoicism). History is divided into six ages, mirroring the six days of biblical creation.
The Two Cities
Augustine’s central thesis is that humanity has entered the last age with the coming of Christ, but only God knows its duration. There’s no reason to believe the end of the world is imminent. The Roman Empire is not definitive or final; history’s framework is much broader. It’s a struggle between two cities that have existed since Cain and Abel, not to be equated with Rome and the Church: the city of the righteous and predestined, and the city of sinners condemned by God. Love alone divides humanity into these two cities:
“Two loves founded two cities. Self-love to contempt of God established the earthly city. And the love of God to the contempt of himself founded the heavenly city. The former glory in itself and the second in God. Because that seeks the glory of men and this is greatest glory to God.” (City of God IV, 28)
These cities remain intertwined until the final separation and the triumph of the City of God. Rome falters not because of Christians but due to the miseries of paganism and its own sins. The triumph of the City of God is assured.
Christianity and the Roman Empire
Christianity possessed a revolutionary element, opposing the kingdom of God to the kingdom of Caesar. The Book of Revelation contrasts the heavenly Jerusalem with Babylon, representing Rome itself. The empire embodied the ideal of a closed world where divinity was part of the political community, with Virgil linking Rome’s founding to the gods.
The Christian concept, with its unwavering proclamation of God’s transcendence, disrupted this self-contained universe. Furthermore, Christianity considered itself the sole possessor of truth. Christians were ideologically alien to the Romans, partly explaining the Empire’s persecution of them. Rome tolerated conquered peoples’ worship as long as they didn’t proselytize among Roman citizens.
Christianity spread rapidly, not just among the lower classes, and wasn’t the traditional creed of a conquered people like Judaism. It was unclear whether to tolerate or persecute it. If not absorbed or destroyed, it could create a state within a state. Constantine made Christianity the state religion but granted a level of tolerance to churches previously unthinkable. Unexpectedly, the empire began to be perceived by many Christians not as an adversary but as something they belonged to.
Christian Philosophy and Ethics
Christians utilized philosophy to clarify their faith, establish dogma against heresy, and justify their beliefs in a hostile world. St. Augustine, a central figure in both aspects, exerted extraordinary influence throughout the Middle Ages. His work represents the first major synthesis of Christianity and Platonic philosophy. Though inspired by faith, Augustine’s Christian thought dominated the philosophical landscape until the emergence of Thomistic philosophy, significantly influencing virtually all Christian thinkers for centuries.
Jesus’ ethics included extreme mandates like loving one’s enemies, forgiving offenses, and praying for those who harm us. Until the early fourth century, all theologians not only condemned war but asserted that no Christian could serve in the military, even in peacetime. Military service was condemned alongside prostitution, slave trading, and other professions. This stance was tested with blood. Martyrs like Julius, a former centurion, and Maximilian chose death over military service.
Augustine of Hippo was among the first theologians to reconcile Jesus’ teachings with defending a largely Christian empire striving to survive barbarian assaults. While acknowledging private pacifism (all must forgive and pray for enemies) and accepting total pacifism for a select few (monks pursuing perfection), he argued that the empire couldn’t adopt this view as public policy and that its defense was permissible. Moreover, Christians should contribute to it as good citizens.