The Cold War: A Global Conflict of Ideology
Economic Division of Europe
The Marshall Plan
The Marshall Plan proposed generous aid to rebuild Europe after World War II. It included almost all Western European countries, except Spain, due to the belief that Franco’s regime was a non-democratic dictatorship. The most benefited countries were Britain, France, and Italy.
The U.S. aid did not reach the Eastern European states due to Stalin’s rejection of the conditions in 1949. As a response, the Soviet Union created COMECON, whose aim was to coordinate the economic policies of the Eastern European countries.
Berlin Crisis
After the war, Germany was divided into four zones, each managed by an Allied country: the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and the USSR. In 1948, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) was created in the zones controlled by the Western Allies.
The Soviet Union responded by blockading West Berlin, hoping to force the Western Allies to abandon the city. However, the United States and its allies organized the Berlin Airlift, supplying West Berlin by air. Stalin eventually recognized the futility of the blockade and lifted it in May 1949.
The USSR then established the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) in its sector of Germany, solidifying the division of the country.
Leadership Changes and Onset of Détente
Starting in 1953, a change in leadership occurred in both the United States and the Soviet Union. Dwight D. Eisenhower became President of the United States, and after Stalin’s death, Nikita Khrushchev rose to power in the USSR. Both leaders seemed more willing to negotiate than their predecessors.
- In 1949, the USSR built its first atomic bomb, ending the U.S. nuclear monopoly.
- Several Third World countries expressed their desire not to align with either bloc.
- Internal conflicts and movements occurred within both blocs.
Movement of Non-Aligned Countries
Some Third World countries expressed their desire to adopt a neutral position in the Cold War. A key moment was the Bandung Conference in 1955. The most important agreement reached at Bandung was the rejection of colonialism and support for all national liberation movements.
Internal Conflicts of the Blocs
Dissidence in the Communist Bloc
Popular movements against Soviet domination arose in several Eastern European countries. The most important were the Polish and Hungarian revolts in 1956 and the Czechoslovak reform movement known as the Prague Spring.
Dissension in the West
France, under President Charles de Gaulle, advocated for a more independent policy. The U.S. response to dissent was more direct in Latin America, where it intervened against governments that deviated from its political principles.
Second Berlin Crisis
Many residents of East Germany fled to West Berlin, attracted by the higher standard of living. In response, the East German government built the Berlin Wall in 1961, separating East and West Berlin.
The Cuban Missile Crisis
Cuba was initially an ally of the United States. However, in 1959, Fidel Castro’s communist revolution came to power, and the new regime was seen as a threat to Western interests. The U.S. opposed the political change, pushing the Castro government closer to the Soviet Union.
The United States supported the Bay of Pigs invasion, a failed attempt by Cuban exiles to overthrow Castro. In response, Castro sought military assistance from the Soviet Union.
In 1962, U.S. spy planes detected the presence of Soviet nuclear missile launch sites in Cuba. President Kennedy responded with a naval blockade of Cuba and threatened to invade if the missiles were not removed. After tense negotiations, the Soviet Union agreed to remove the missiles, and the crisis was averted.
Vietnam War
After a long and bitter war, France was defeated and withdrew from Vietnam in 1954. The country was divided into two states: communist North Vietnam, led by Ho Chi Minh, and South Vietnam, a pro-Western dictatorship.
A communist guerrilla movement, the Viet Cong, supported by North Vietnam, operated in South Vietnam, threatening to overthrow the government. In 1965, the United States escalated its involvement in the war, sending combat troops to support South Vietnam.
The Tet Offensive in 1968 demonstrated the strength of the Viet Cong and the difficulties faced by U.S. forces. In 1969, President Richard Nixon began a gradual withdrawal of U.S. troops. A ceasefire agreement was signed in 1973, but fighting between North and South Vietnam continued until 1975 when North Vietnam captured Saigon, ending the war.
The Vietnam War was a significant setback for the United States, both militarily and internationally.
Soviet Offensive
By the mid-1970s, the U.S. hegemonic position had weakened. The Vietnam War had damaged its military prestige, and the Soviet Union had strengthened its position with the establishment of communist regimes in several Asian and African countries.
The oil crisis of 1973 also affected the West more than the Soviet Union. The USSR deployed nuclear missiles in Eastern Europe and increased its support for revolutionary movements in the Third World.
1979: Key Year
Islamic Revolution in Iran
Iran, under the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, was a close ally of the United States. However, the Shah’s Western-style reforms and his authoritarian rule created resentment among the population. The Shiite clergy, led by Ayatollah Khomeini, took advantage of this discontent and launched a revolution in 1979, overthrowing the Shah and establishing an Islamic Republic.