The Cold War and European Integration
1. The Cold War
1.1 The Rise of Superpowers
After World War II, two superpowers emerged: the United States and the Soviet Union. Their rivalry ignited the Cold War, marked by frequent conflicts in remote areas. This tension, while having military, political, and economic dimensions, was fundamentally ideological, pitting liberalism against communism, democracy against totalitarianism.
1.2 Formation of Blocs
The conferences at Yalta and Potsdam shaped post-war world politics, deciding the occupation and division of Germany, demilitarization, and the removal of Nazi leaders. However, these meetings also witnessed the first clashes between the U.S. and the USSR. By 1947, President Truman sought Congressional approval to halt Soviet expansion, while the Soviets warned of U.S. expansionism. The USSR’s imposition of communist governments in Eastern Europe, with Iran and Greece as early friction points, led to the formation of two opposing blocs that persisted until the USSR’s dissolution in 1991.
1.3 Consolidation of a Bipolar World
The division of the world into a Western bloc (controlled by the U.S.) and an Eastern bloc (dominated by the USSR) became clear with two key events: the Marshall Plan and the Berlin Blockade.
The Marshall Plan (1947)
The U.S. initiated economic aid to Europe to facilitate recovery, contain Soviet expansion, and foster a middle class supportive of democratic governance. The 17 beneficiary countries formed the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC). The Soviet response was the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon or CMEA).
The Division of Germany (1945-1961)
Germany and Berlin were divided into four zones controlled by the U.S., USSR, France, and the UK. In 1948, the Western powers unified their zones, opposed by the USSR. This led to the creation of two German states: the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany). In 1961, due to the mass exodus of East Germans to the West, the communist government built the Berlin Wall, a symbol of the Iron Curtain.
Militarization of Blocs
In 1949, the Western bloc formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The Eastern bloc responded with the Warsaw Pact in 1955.
1.4 Conflicts
From 1950 onwards, numerous proxy wars occurred, including the Korean and Vietnam Wars.
1.5 Peaceful Coexistence and the Missile Crisis
A period of mutual respect emerged between the U.S. and USSR, promoted by President Kennedy and Premier Khrushchev. This detente was influenced by the USSR’s acquisition of nuclear weapons in 1949. However, the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, triggered by Soviet missile deployment in Cuba, brought the world to the brink of nuclear war before negotiations led to de-escalation.
1.6 Tensions within Blocs
Economic, technological, and ideological competition fueled tensions within both blocs. The U.S. sometimes supported dictatorial governments to suppress internal dissent.
5. European Integration
5.1 Post-War Imperative
After World War II, the need to rebuild and prevent future conflict became paramount. The war exposed Europe’s weakness, prompting countries to unite and address Soviet expansionism, a process spurred by the Marshall Plan.
5.2 The Building Process
In 1948, the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) was founded to coordinate Marshall Plan investments and manage trade. The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) followed in 1951.
5.3 From Six to Twelve (1957-1985)
The 1957 Treaty of Rome established the European Economic Community (EEC) and EURATOM, creating the “Europe of Six.” The EEC aimed to eliminate internal customs, unify tariffs, and harmonize foreign and agricultural policies. Its success attracted new members. The Common Agricultural Policy was established, and political integration strengthened with elections to the European Parliament. Spain and Portugal joined in 1986, forming the “Europe of Twelve.”
5.4 The Maastricht Treaty (1992)
Signed in 1992, the Maastricht Treaty aimed to move beyond a common market towards a unified Europe. The EEC became the European Union (EU). Key objectives included monetary union (creating the euro), a common foreign and security policy, protection of citizen rights, cohesion funds for less developed regions, and cooperation in justice.