The Cortes of Cadiz: Spain’s Liberal Revolution
The Other Side of the War
While much of the Spanish population fought against the French, the Cortes of Cadiz sought to implement some of the enlightened ideas of the bourgeois revolution in France.
The Appeal to the Cortes
After 100 years of Bourbon rule, the Cortes finally met in 1812. They wanted the Constitution of 1812 to bring about change. The Cortes was primarily composed of middle-class men, including members of the Church, lawyers, military officials, and professors. There were also representatives from industry and commerce. However, there was no true representation of the common people, as not even a peasant could attend the meetings in Cadiz.
The Constitutional Assembly
The Constitutional Assembly was formed, and members from Cadiz and the liberal revolution began advocating for equal rights for all, including those in Spain’s American colonies. Spain and its colonies were declared a single nation.
Two Sides Emerge
Two main factions emerged: the Liberals, who favored revolution and change, and the Absolutists, who preferred to maintain the old system with the monarchy. The Church generally sided with the Absolutists and supported a conservative approach.
Freedom of Expression
The Liberals implemented the decree of freedom of the press, inspired by Enlightenment ideals. The Cortes of Cadiz dismantled the old regime’s structure, abolishing the Inquisition as an obstacle to science and freedom of expression. They also reorganized the provinces to achieve political centralization.
Parliament and Universal Suffrage
Parliament was granted the power to make laws, and universal suffrage was introduced. While Ferdinand VII was still king, he was now a constitutional monarch. Spain remained a confessional state, and privileged groups retained their properties.
The Return of Ferdinand VII (1814-1820)
Upon his return, Ferdinand VII was urged by generals to restore the absolute monarchy. The Navy protected Absolutist members of the Cortes, who signed the Manifesto of the Persians. Ferdinand declared the Cortes of Cadiz illegal and reversed all the changes they had made.
Revolutions and the Holy Alliance
Revolutions against the Holy Alliance, which supported absolutism in Europe, put pressure on Ferdinand VII. He suppressed freedom of the press and reinstated the Inquisition, effectively restoring the old regime. The Church requested the return of its lands, but Ferdinand refused.
Opposition to Absolutism
Many disagreed with the old system and wanted the Constitution of Cadiz reinstated. Numerous military pronouncements aimed to overthrow Ferdinand VII’s absolutism and restore the Constitution by force.
Economic and Financial Crisis
The need for financial contributions was highlighted in Cadiz. Industry stagnated, and agriculture saw limited growth due to the return of privileges to the Mesta, which threatened constitutional agriculture.
The Three Years (1820-1823)
Rafael Riego, a military commander, launched a coup in support of the Constitution of 1812. Ferdinand VII was forced to accept the constitutional regime, while liberal groups emerged in some villages.
Liberals in Power
The Liberals abolished the Inquisition and implemented the tax system established in Cadiz. They also targeted land ownership, and the press became a tool for political action.
Moderates and Exaltados
Two groups of Liberals emerged: the Moderates, who favored a gradual approach, and the Exaltados (Radicals), who demanded more drastic changes. The Moderates struggled against the Absolutist reaction, and those who opposed the revolution were punished. The actions against the revolution radicalized the Exaltados, who formed the government in 1822 with the support of the army and national guard.
The French Intervention
In 1823, the French army, the “Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis,” funded by the absolutist powers of Europe and the Holy Alliance, intervened to restore Ferdinand VII’s power. The Liberals were defeated, and the three years of constitutional rule came to an end. The French army remained in Spain for five years.
Ferdinand VII’s Final Years (1823-1833)
Ferdinand VII ruled as an absolute monarch until his death. He reversed the liberal reforms and restored the Church’s power, hindering scientific progress. The old order was partially reinstated, but the experiences of the three years of constitutional rule had left their mark, leading to some degree of political liberalism.
Endless Crisis
Ferdinand VII failed to address the nation’s problems with the laws of the old regime and outdated economic tools. His government faced two major challenges: the Liberals, who were always ready for uprisings, and the Ultraroyalists, who advocated for a return to absolute monarchy and blamed Ferdinand for yielding to the Liberals.
Uprisings and Instability
Numerous uprisings occurred, including those of the Ultraroyalists in Navarre and Castilla La Mancha in 1826. This instability increased after 1830, as liberal revolutions succeeded in France, and Spain could no longer rely on foreign support for its absolutist regime.
The Pragmatic Sanction and the Carlists
Ferdinand VII issued the Pragmatic Sanction, allowing women to inherit the throne. Supporters of his brother, Carlos, who opposed the Pragmatic Sanction, took advantage of the king’s illness to challenge the decree. However, Ferdinand recovered and reaffirmed the Pragmatic Sanction.
The Death of Ferdinand VII and the Carlist Wars
In 1833, Ferdinand VII died, and his wife, Maria Cristina, became regent for their daughter, Isabella. Carlos and his supporters, the Carlists, who defended the old regime, challenged Isabella’s claim to the throne, leading to the Carlist Wars.