The Crisis of 1917 and the Primo de Rivera Dictatorship (1923-1930) in Spain
The Crisis of 1917
The crisis of 1917 in Spain must be understood within the international context of World War I (1914-1918). Spain’s neutrality during the war initially led to economic recovery, as demand for industrial goods from belligerent countries increased. The middle classes benefited most, seeking to increase their profits. Meanwhile, workers faced rising needs and product shortages due to decreased imports and increased exports.
The Russian Revolution spurred the Spanish socialist movement. Trade unions (UGT and CNT) organized a general strike. Another dissatisfied sector was the army officers, who formed Juntas to defend their interests.
Beyond its social dimension, the crisis also had a political dimension. Nationalist sectors (led by the Catalan bourgeoisie) and the left in Barcelona convened an Assembly of Parliamentarians. This assembly sought constitutional amendments and the formation of a Constituent Cortes to reshape Spain’s political structure.
The monarchy faced pressure from three distinct forces: the Catalan bourgeoisie, the army, and the proletariat. Joint action by these forces could have sparked a profound revolution. However, the Conservative government, supported by the army, repressed the revolutionary movement. The middle classes did not participate due to the radical nature of the social revolt, and the peasantry remained largely uninvolved. The monarchy and the government, including Cambo as a minister, agreed on a pact promising elections in 1918, leaving many issues unresolved.
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)
Following the failed attempts to resolve the crisis of 1917, and given the system’s inability to curb political instability, social unrest, and the disastrous war in Morocco, General Miguel Primo de Rivera led a coup on September 13, 1923. He suspended the constitution, dissolved Parliament, banned political parties, and established a Military Directorate.
Primo de Rivera’s coup received support from the crown, the industrial bourgeoisie, the middle classes, the Church, and the army. Even the Socialist Party initially accepted the dictatorship, which was presented as a temporary solution to strengthen institutions and prevent social revolution.
While some ideologues of the regime admired Mussolini’s Italian Fascism, Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship lacked a mass party with a concrete program. It was an authoritarian military dictatorship dependent on the dictator’s personality. The dictatorship relied on Primo de Rivera’s popularity and was characterized by its conservative, Catholic, patriotic, and authoritarian nature. Its pragmatism stemmed from a search for efficiency.
The dictatorship led to a decline in social unrest through repressive measures against radical labor movements. It also brought about the pacification of Morocco through a joint Hispano-French offensive. Spain experienced population growth, industrial expansion, urban growth, and social modernization, aided by the positive international economic climate of the 1920s.
The dictatorship adopted an interventionist economic policy, investing in infrastructure, protecting domestic products with tariffs, and creating monopolies. While initially successful, this policy led to unsustainable public spending.
Social policy was paternalistic and reformist, introducing improvements for workers, such as health insurance and Sunday rest. The corporate state established the National Organization, grouping workers and employers to regulate working conditions and control unions.
From 1925, Primo de Rivera transitioned to a Civilian Directory and attempted to perpetuate his rule by creating the Patriotic Union party and a National Consultative Assembly. These efforts to establish a fascist state faced opposition from intellectuals, students, workers, and political leaders, leading to increased repression.
The international economic crisis of 1929 precipitated Primo de Rivera’s resignation in January 1930. Alfonso XIII attempted to restore the pre-dictatorship liberal system, but the monarchy’s support for the dictatorship had discredited it, leading to growing support for a Republic.