The Crisis of Liberalism and the Spanish Civil War (1898-1939)
The Crisis Of Liberalism (1898-1931)
The Crisis of ’98
In 1895, Cuba erupted in a new movement for independence that continued until 1898 when the U.S. declared war on Spain. With the defeat, Spain lost its last colonies (Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines). This is known as the Disaster of ’98 and resulted in the emergence of Regenerationism, a cultural movement whose main figure was Joaquin Costa, advocating for Spain’s reform.
The Constitutional Reign of Alfonso XIII (1902-1923)
In 1902, Alfonso XIII ascended to the throne. The Constitution of 1876 and the system of turnismo continued with Maura and Canalejas. Maura attempted to end the system of political patronage (caciquismo), and Canalejas implemented a decentralization policy and approved the Padlock Law (preventing the establishment of new religious orders). The Liberal and Conservative parties lost strength, and nationalist, republican, and socialist parties, along with trade unions, began to gain support. From 1909 onward, the Restoration system declined: Tragic Week occurred, the 1917 crisis unfolded, and social violence erupted.
Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)
The Annual disaster occurred in the Moroccan War, resulting in the deaths of many soldiers. The army sought to protect its power and find those responsible. Primo de Rivera, with the King’s consent, staged a coup. The Constitution was suspended, the courts were dissolved, political parties and trade unions were banned, and the war in Morocco ended. The dictatorship lasted until 1930 because the country was doing well economically. However, the dictatorial regime faced increasing criticism, and Primo de Rivera lost the King’s support and resigned in 1930. Alfonso XIII called for elections. The Republicans signed the Pact of San Sebastian to participate in the elections together and establish a republic.
The Second Spanish Republic
The Provisional Government and the Constitution of 1931
The new elections resulted in a Republican victory. Alfonso XIII went into exile, and a provisional government was formed. The new government consisted of parties that had signed the Pact of San Sebastian and was presided over by Alcalá-Zamora. Elections were called for a Constituent Assembly, which the Republicans won. The Assembly drafted the Constitution of 1931, which included individual freedoms (including divorce), universal suffrage, a secular state, a decentralized territorial organization, and social welfare provisions (including public education). This Constitution caused discontent among many, particularly regarding religious matters. Alcalá-Zamora became President of the Republic, and Manuel Azaña became Prime Minister.
The Reformist Biennium (1931-1933)
Reforms:
During Azaña’s two years as Prime Minister, several reforms were implemented:
- Agrarian Reform: Undertaken by the Institute of Agrarian Reform to improve the production and lives of peasants by expropriating uncultivated land. This reform was not entirely successful due to a lack of funding.
- Military Reform: Aimed at ensuring the army’s loyalty to the Republic.
- Labor Reform: Established minimum wages and accident insurance.
- Educational Reform: Expanded public education.
- Civil Reform: Introduced civil marriage and divorce.
Opposition to Reform:
Opposition came from the army, the Church, and the upper classes, as well as from trade unions and anarchists who believed the reforms were not far-reaching enough. In 1932, there was a failed coup attempt. Anarchists carried out strikes and land occupations. In Casas Viejas (Cádiz), a peasant uprising resulted in several deaths. Azaña resigned, and new elections were called. The right-wing CEDA, chaired by Gil Robles, gained prominence in the elections.
The Conservative Biennium (1933-1935)
The center-right won the elections with the Radical Party, led by Lerroux and supported by the CEDA. The reforms of the previous government were stalled, causing discontent among the left. The entry of CEDA ministers into the government prompted leftist parties to attempt to seize power through undemocratic means, leading to the October Revolution of 1934. The revolution triumphed in Asturias but was crushed by Franco. There was also an uprising in Catalonia, which was also suppressed, and its leaders were imprisoned. Following these events, the government was in crisis, and new elections were called.
The Popular Front
The left united in the Popular Front electoral coalition, while the extremist right formed a coalition with leaders like José Antonio Primo de Rivera and Calvo Sotelo. The Popular Front won the elections and resumed the reforms, releasing prisoners from the October Revolution. Alcalá-Zamora was removed from the presidency and replaced by Azaña. Tensions increased on the streets. Lieutenant Castillo, a left-wing politician, was assassinated, followed by the assassination of Calvo Sotelo. These events triggered the revolt of Spanish troops in North Africa, led by Francisco Franco.
The Outbreak of the Civil War
Coup and Division of Spain
The revolt of the troops in North Africa spread to the mainland in July 1936. The coup divided Spain into two sides:
- Nationalists: Controlled the two Castiles, Galicia, Cáceres, western Andalusia, Navarre, the Balearic Islands (except Menorca), and the Canary Islands. The Junta of National Defense was established in Burgos. Franco was named Head of State, and all citizens were united under a single party, the FET de las JONS.
- Republicans: Controlled Aragon, northern Spain (except Navarre), Catalonia, Valencia, Madrid, and most of Andalusia. After the coup, the authority of the Republican government virtually disappeared, and social revolutions took place, with the expropriation of farms and factories. Militias were organized to defend the Republic, but they lacked organization, leading to the creation of the Popular Army.
The Internationalization of the Conflict
To prevent the Civil War from spreading throughout Europe, Britain and France signed a Non-Intervention Agreement. However, both sides received foreign aid:
- The Republic received support from the USSR.
- The rebels received support from Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany.
The Republicans also received support from many intellectuals. Many foreigners left their countries and joined the International Brigades.
The Evolution of the War
The Campaign Around Madrid (July 1936 – March 1937)
At the beginning of August, the Army of Africa, supported by Italian and German planes, arrived in the peninsula. Their main objective was to capture Madrid. They launched an offensive against the capital, forcing the Republicans to abandon the city. However, aircraft and tanks from the USSR and the International Brigades prevented the capture of Madrid. Franco’s troops were defeated at the battles of Jarama and Guadalajara.
The Northern Front (April – October 1937)
Franco’s troops headed north to seize the industrial areas of Biscay. Guernica was bombed, and the Basque Country was taken, followed by Santander and Asturias. The Republicans launched counteroffensives at Brunete and Belchite (Zaragoza) to relieve pressure on the north but failed.
The End of the War (October 1937 – April 1939)
Franco turned his attention east, capturing Teruel and advancing towards the Mediterranean. Catalonia was isolated. Republican territory was fragmented. The Battle of the Ebro took place, lasting more than three months and resulting in the near destruction of the Republican army. The Nationalists advanced into Catalonia and captured Barcelona. They then entered Madrid, and the war ended.
Life During the War
During the war, the population suffered from hunger, especially in Republican areas, as the Nationalists controlled the agricultural regions. Food rationing was implemented. The population also experienced fear due to the fighting and bombings, as well as the recruitment of their children. There were also reprisals against those suspected of sympathizing with the other side. The most common form of repression was the paseo, where individuals were taken away and murdered.
- Republicans were imprisoned or killed by the Nationalists.
- In the Republican zone, military officers, landowners, businesspeople, and clergy were persecuted.
- On both sides, many people were denounced for sympathizing with the other side and executed.
Many people became refugees. More than 30,000 children were evacuated from Spain. Thousands of people went into exile.