The Crisis of the Restoration System in Spain
The Crisis of the Restoration System
In 1902, Alfonso XIII ascended to the throne at the young age of 16. During his reign, the Cánovas system, characterized by the rotation of parties and the Constitution of 1876, was maintained. However, the political system began to exhibit signs of fragility and experienced accelerated deterioration over the years. Evidence of this included the failure of political stability, Alfonso’s unfortunate management as head of state, and the persistence of patronage and administrative corruption.
Between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, an ideological wave of protest developed against the Restoration regime, known as regenerationism. One of the most prominent activists was Joaquín Costa, who demanded the complete dismantling of the Restoration political system.
Opposition Groups
a) The Republicans:
Republicans succeeded in attracting ever-wider social sectors among the urban middle class and salaried workers. When Alfonso XIII began his reign, republicanism could be divided into two sectors:
- The more extreme tendency (Lerroux and Nakens) sought the support of the working classes.
- The more moderate tendency (Salmerón, Álvarez, and Azcárate) sought the support of the middle class.
Republicanism was further divided into several political formations:
- The Radical Republican Party: Founded in 1908 by Lerroux, it was determined to break with the turnista and cacique fabric and stop electoral fraud. It aimed to build a modern mass party and even created women’s organizations.
- The Reform Party: Founded in 1912 by Álvarez, its proposals included the democratization of political institutions and the expansion of economic intervention.
b) The Carlists:
During Alfonso XIII’s reign, the Carlists only maintained social support in the provinces of Navarra, Vizcaya, and Gipuzkoa. Led by Gil Robles, Juan Vázquez de Mella, Víctor Pradera, and the Marquis de Cerralbo, they created the Requeté in 1907, a militia formed by young Carlists organized to fight the Republicans.
c) The Catalan Nationalists:
The Lliga Regionalista maintained dominance in the political life of Catalonia and enjoyed repeated electoral victories until the start of the military dictatorship in 1923. Francesc Cambó retained the leadership of the Catalan nationalist movement. After the general strike of 1917, resulting from increased social unrest, violence, and the anarchist revolutionary offensive of the proletarian movement, the Lliga Catalanista prioritized the defense of economic interests.
d) The Basque Nationalists:
After the death of Sabino Arana, the PNV began a period of expansion and achieved its first electoral successes. It created a nationalist labor union known as ELA-STV in 1911. Two trends emerged within the party:
- The moderate nationalists: They preferred to follow the tactics of the Catalan League.
- Radical independentistas: They had numerous supporters within the youth wing and advocated for guerrilla action “to free Euskadi.”
e) The Emergence of Andalusian Regionalism:
Led by Blas Infante, who created and presided over the first Andalusian center in Seville and promoted the journal Andalucía as an organ of expression. He also promoted the Regional Assembly of Ronda, where an autonomist program was adopted and a proposal for a statute of autonomy was developed.
f) The Proletarian Opposition:
Syndicalists and Socialists, led by Pestana, Seguí, and Peiró, moved away from using violence and adopted a less extreme and more unionist approach. They created the National Confederation of Labor (CNT) in 1910 and the Iberian Anarchist Federation (FAI) in 1927.
Spanish Marxists experienced a dramatic expansion, with UGT membership reaching 240,000 in 1921 and the PSOE having 43,000 members.
The Political Revisionism: Attempts to Reform the System from Within
After the Disaster of ’98, most turnista party leaders recognized the need for changes in the political system to modernize the old regime. The three common objectives were:
- The revitalization of liberal institutions.
- The prevention of revolutionary upheavals.
- Slowing the advance of republicanism and democracy.
The first reform project was initiated by Conservative leader Francisco Silvela, when he chaired the government between 1902 and 1903. He defined his program as a “revolution from above.”
Antonio Maura led the most ambitious and comprehensive reform project. The objectives of the Maurista proposals were similar to Silvela’s program: enhance civic participation, ensure respect for laws, and end corruption, electoral fraud, and caciquismo.
Maura knew his reform plan would dismantle the foundations that had supported the Restoration regime since 1875, and that political maneuvering could cause the collapse of the entire system. In 1903, Maura became head of government for the first time and began preparations to ensure the impartiality of officials and introduce competitive examinations.
He also presented several projects to improve the administration of justice. All ended in failure. José Canalejas presented the following agenda: anticlericalism, state intervention to solve social problems, and democratization.
The last reform attempts were proposed but never implemented in 1919. The Liberal Count of Romanones proposed a complete reorganization of the state that included an amendment to the Constitution.
The Tragic Week in Barcelona
The mobilization against the war in Morocco began in the port of Barcelona on July 18, 1909, during the embarkation of troops. The revolt lasted for a week, resulting in a strong anti-militarist movement and rejection of the social and cultural hegemony of the Church.
On July 24, a strike committee was formed with the participation of republicans, socialists, and anarchists, who called a general strike for the 26th. However, the popular initiative overflowed its organizers, and it ended up being a spontaneous outburst of all the social tensions built up over decades.
Incidents multiplied in the streets, barricades were erected, there were clashes with the police, and finally, a strong anticlerical sentiment exploded, leading to the attack and burning of more than 80 religious establishments.
The authorities responded by declaring a state of war and sending in reinforcements to quell the demonstrations.
The Crisis of 1917
In 1917, a serious crisis exposed the weakness of the Cánovas system. Causes: the internal division of the dynastic parties, the lack of relevant policies, and the First World War, which brought a sharp rise in commodity prices, resulting in a reduction of the working class’s purchasing power.
This crisis manifested in three ways:
- Military Crisis: The military hierarchy prevented excessive modernization of the army. Promotions based on merit favored pro-war Africanist militants. The price increase lowered the wages of the military. The Juntas de Defensa (military committees) demanded a wage increase, opposed promotions based on merit, and considered the government responsible for all ills.
- Political Crisis: The government of Eduardo Dato (Conservative), faced with the serious situation, dissolved parliament and suspended constitutional liberties. This resulted in the meeting of a parliamentary assembly in Barcelona on July 17, formed by senators and deputies belonging to the Lliga, demanding a change of government and the convening of a Constituent Cortes to draft a new constitution.
- Social Crisis: The decline in wages at a time of strong profits for entrepreneurs led to the first general strike in Spain in August 1917, organized by the UGT and CNT.
The Impact of World War I
Under these conditions, the general crisis of the system seemed almost inevitable, especially when the economic, social, and military situation worsened since 1914. In that year, the First World War broke out, in which Spain remained neutral. This position initially allowed for exceptional economic growth through increased exports of industrial and mining products. However, as the increase in exports was not accompanied by an improvement in productivity, it caused a serious inflationary spiral. Between 1916 and 1918, the prices of staple goods nearly doubled, which explains the increase in strikes (212 in 1914, 463 in 1918, more than a thousand in 1920). The social divide was linked to the political crisis.
Colonial Intervention in Morocco
Since 1906, Spain began its penetration into North Africa. The Algeciras Conference (1906) and the subsequent Franco-Spanish Treaty (1912) formalized its entry into the division of spheres of influence between European countries. Under the influence of Britain, which wanted to limit the French presence in North Africa, a Franco-Spanish protectorate was established in Morocco. Spain was granted a strip in the north, the Rif, and an enclave on the Atlantic coast (Ifni and Río de Oro).
In 1921, the Spanish army was defeated at Annual by Moroccan natives led by Abd el-Krim.
The Dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)
Faced with this situation, the captain general of Catalonia, Miguel Primo de Rivera, staged a coup and seized power on September 12, 1923. The coup was supported by the king, sectors of the army, the Catalan bourgeoisie, and even some socialists, eager to achieve peace in the streets and hoping that the new regime would initiate social reforms.
a) The Military Directory (1923-1925)
Primo de Rivera formed a government composed exclusively of generals, a strong military government. This government enjoyed great popularity by solving some major political issues: it ended terrorism and restored order; it also finally pacified Morocco with the landing at Alhucemas, a military operation supported by the French army. However, the dissolution of the Mancomunitat de Catalunya, a sort of Catalan autonomous government, would detract from the support of the bourgeoisie.
b) The Civil Directory (1925-1930)
In 1925, the regime of Primo de Rivera, which until then had been established on a provisional basis until the chaotic situation was resolved, decided to institutionalize and perpetuate itself. This is evidenced by the creation of the Patriotic Union, a single party representing the government, inspired by the Italian Fascist Party, with whose regime there are many parallels. Primo de Rivera formed a government composed of civilians.
The economic situation was very favorable, and this encouraged the country’s industrial development: construction of roads, electrification, water transfer schemes and large hydraulic works, and the creation of large monopolies that were born in this era, such as Telefónica, Tabacalera, Campsa, etc.
The Fall of the Monarchy (1930-1931)
After the failure of the dictatorship, the monarchy’s days were numbered. Alfonso XIII became involved in politics and lost. He instructed General Berenguer to form a government that would prepare the country for the restoration of democratic freedoms and a return to the outdated system of turnismo. But Berenguer lacked decisiveness, and the people would not accept the old democratic system as if nothing had happened. An anti-monarchist coalition emerged.
Berenguer was replaced by Admiral Aznar, tasked with calling municipal elections. The elections of April 12, 1931, gave victory to anti-monarchist forces in large cities, areas not controlled by rural bosses. Alfonso XIII, trying to avoid confrontation, left the country, and on April 14, the Second Republic was proclaimed.