The Crown of Aragon & Spanish History: Expansion, Unification & Beyond
The Expansion of the Crown of Aragon in the Mediterranean
The Mediterranean Sea was a significant area of influence for the Crown of Aragon for several reasons, including territorial expansion, managing the Almogavars (mercenary soldiers), and finding new trade routes for Catalan and Valencian merchants. From the late 12th century until the mid-15th century, the Aragonese monarchs pursued a policy of expansion in the Mediterranean. They annexed the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Sardinia, and the Kingdom of Naples consecutively, and even held Athens and Neopatria for a short period. This expansion led to the development of active trade routes that connected these regions with others, such as the Middle East and Flanders. However, the crises of the 14th and 15th centuries, coupled with the Ottoman advance and the emergence of new Atlantic trade routes, led to the decline of this Mediterranean trade network.
The Organization of the State: Institutions and Governance
The Catholic Monarchs (Ferdinand and Isabella) sought to modernize the state, strengthen royal authority, maintain religious unity, and control the political influence of the estates. They controlled the Church through a policy of royal patronage and improved the training of the clergy. Religious unity was achieved by expelling the Jews (1492) and the Mudéjars (Muslims who remained in Spain after the Christian reconquest) after the Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1568-1571). The Catholic Monarchs also controlled the Inquisition, which was common to both Castile and Aragon. The first Grand Inquisitor, Tomás de Torquemada, played a significant role in achieving religious unification. In Castile, the most important institutions were the Royal Council (the king’s governing body and advisors), the royal secretaries (who connected the king and the councils), and the magistrates (who were used by the king to implement reforms and raise funds). The Santa Hermandad (rural police force) was resurrected. Justice was organized at the municipal level (magistrates), kingdom level (chancelleries and courts), and the Royal Council. In Aragon, the remença peasant revolt was resolved with the Arbitral Sentence of Guadalupe (1486).
Dynastic Union: Integration of the Crowns of Castile and Aragon
The accession of the Catholic Monarchs to power occurred during a period of political crisis in Castile. The Castilian nobles rejected the claim of Henry IV’s daughter, Joan, because they considered her illegitimate. The king reached an agreement with his sister Isabella, promising to name her his heir in exchange for her consent to marry whomever he chose. However, Isabella secretly married Ferdinand of Aragon, leading to her being disinherited. Upon Henry IV’s death, Isabella proclaimed herself queen, starting a civil war against Joan and her supporters, including some French nobles and the king of Portugal. Portuguese troops, under the command of Afonso V, were defeated by Ferdinand’s forces, and the Treaty of Alcáçovas-Toledo (1479) was signed, recognizing Isabella as Queen of Castile in exchange for her non-intervention in Portuguese affairs in the Atlantic.
The marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella unified the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. According to the Concord of Segovia (1475), each kingdom retained its own laws and institutions. Ferdinand was only King Consort of Castile, with Isabella’s daughter Joanna being the heir apparent. In Aragon, Ferdinand was the heir, and Isabella was granted co-regency. The only common institution was the Inquisition.
The Conquest of the Nasrid Kingdom and the Incorporation of the Kingdom of Navarre
One of the main objectives of the Catholic Monarchs was religious unity, which necessitated the conquest of the last remaining Muslim kingdom in Iberia, the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada. Relations between Castile and Granada deteriorated, and despite the difficult situation of the Nasrid kingdom, the Granada War (1482-1492) required a major military effort from Castile. The war began in Alhama with the excuse of border clashes, with Diego Ponce de León capturing the town. The Catholic Monarchs then began their conquest, culminating in the siege of Granada, which fell on January 2, 1492. A pact was made with the last Nasrid ruler, Muhammad XII (Boabdil), to ensure the property, liberty, and preservation of the religion of the defeated Muslims. In Málaga, which resisted, the population was enslaved. The funding for the war came primarily from Castile. Both France and Castile wanted to annex the Kingdom of Navarre. However, the breakdown of relations with France allowed Ferdinand to send the Duke of Alba to annex Navarre in 1512. Navarre’s institutions were maintained, but the Jews were expelled, and the Inquisition was imposed.
The Discovery of America
The 15th century saw the expansion of Portugal and Castile in Africa and the Atlantic islands. Advances in navigation, such as cartography, the compass, the astrolabe, and the caravel, made it possible to cross the Atlantic. Voyages to the Indies were motivated by the desire for gold, sugar, slaves, and especially spices. Christopher Columbus proposed an alternative route to the Indies by sailing west across the Atlantic. He initially offered his project to Portugal, but eventually signed the Capitulations of Santa Fe (1492) with the Catholic Monarchs, which appointed him Admiral of the Ocean Sea and granted him 10% of the profits from any discovered lands. The Catholic Monarchs provided him with three ships, and he departed on September 3, 1492, arriving in the Americas on October 12, 1492. The Americas were later named after Amerigo Vespucci, who explored the South American coastline.
Impact of America on Spain
The Spanish brought new products from the Americas, such as maize, tobacco, tomatoes, and potatoes. Precious metals flooded the European market, increasing the money supply and causing inflation, which created difficulties for the less affluent sectors of society. The demand for manufactured goods increased as the populations of Spain and the Americas adapted to European lifestyles, leading to rising prices. However, most of the precious metals did not remain in Spain, causing a major economic crisis in the long run. These metals also helped finance the Habsburg wars, but they also contributed to the rise of capitalism. Emigration to the Indies was initially exclusive to Spaniards, depleting a population already affected by wars. Castile attempted to protect the indigenous populations of the Americas, but this did not prevent their exploitation, and the transatlantic slave trade between Africa and the Americas was established.
The Crisis of 1640
The reign of Philip IV of Spain saw several conflicts that demonstrated the failure of the Count-Duke of Olivares’s policies. There were uprisings in Catalonia, which demanded an army to defend against French incursions. This led to the introduction of the Unión de Armas, a plan to create a unified army from all the Spanish kingdoms. The Unión de Armas sparked the Reapers’ War (1640-1659) in Catalonia, which began with a revolt of peasants in Girona and spread throughout the region. The war ended with the assassination of the viceroy and the flight of the authorities. The Catalan government accepted the sovereignty of France, whose troops entered Catalonia, starting a war that lasted until 1652. In Portugal, Olivares rejected pleas for assistance in defending the Portuguese colonies. The Portuguese opposition, led by the nobility, proclaimed John IV as king in 1640. Olivares was dismissed in 1643.
The War of the Spanish Succession and the Treaty of Utrecht
The death of Charles II of Spain without an heir caused a conflict between Charles of Austria and Philip of Anjou for the Spanish throne. Philip was proclaimed king as Philip V, but the French occupation of parts of the Spanish Netherlands and the potential union of France and Spain led to the formation of the Grand Alliance at The Hague, consisting of England, Austria, and the Dutch Republic. The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) ensued. Great Britain captured Gibraltar in 1704. In Spain, Catalonia, Valencia, Mallorca, and Aragon supported Charles, while Castile supported Philip, who was backed by France. The French took Valencia and Aragon, but Catalonia continued the war until 1714. In Italy and the Netherlands, the war was unfavorable to the Bourbons until Charles became Holy Roman Emperor after the death of his brother, Joseph I. This led Charles’s allies to seek peace with Philip. The Treaty of Utrecht (1714) recognized Philip V as King of Spain in exchange for the separation of Spain and France. The Spanish Netherlands and parts of Italy were ceded to Austria. England received Gibraltar and Menorca, the asiento (permission to sell slaves to Spanish America), and a year’s worth of access to trade with Spanish America, potentially giving it naval dominance. Portugal received Sacramento Colony in South America, which was used for smuggling. This treaty created a balance of power between England, France, and Austria. After the war, Spain was a second-rate power and had to recover its lost territories with the support of the Bourbons.
The Practice of Despotism: Charles III
Upon the death of Ferdinand VI, his half-brother Charles III ascended the throne. Charles had previously been King of Naples, giving him experience in government. He introduced enlightened despotism in Spain. The Enlightenment had limited impact in Spain, so a political reformer was needed. The reforms were initially led by Leopoldo de Gregorio, Marquis of Esquilache, but a supply crisis and poorly implemented security reforms led to the Esquilache Riots (1766) in Madrid, which spread to other cities. Esquilache was dismissed, and power passed to Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea, Count of Aranda, who ordered the expulsion of the Jesuits, accusing them of instigating the riots.
A reform program was created, and Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos published his”Report on the Agrarian Law” but it was never implemented. Government ministers promoted manufacturing, increasing the production of shipyards and arms factories, but these were unprofitable and relied on state subsidies. Trade liberalization was important for the Catalan textile industry and increased the profits of large merchants. The Imperial Canal of Aragon was built, and a road network was developed, connecting Madrid to major cities. However, the reforms were insufficient to fully modernize the country.