The Decline of the Spanish Empire in the 17th Century
The Spanish Empire in the 17th Century
Austria, Government, and Internal Conflicts
During the 17th century, Habsburg policy was often left in the hands of trusted individuals known as validos.
Felipe III (1598-1621) oversaw the beginning of Spain’s decline. The most influential figure of his reign was the Duke of Lerma, who was eventually dismissed due to mismanagement and the intrigues of his son, the Duke of Uceda. Both men primarily sought personal enrichment and prevented the monarch from actively participating in governance.
Felipe IV (1621-1665) is considered one of the least effective monarchs in Spanish history. He entrusted his confidence to the Count-Duke of Olivares, whose government, despite aiming to serve the monarchy’s interests and restore the glories of Philip II’s reign, proved disastrous. Olivares’ policies led to a crisis that nearly fragmented Spain.
During Felipe III’s reign, the Moriscos were expelled in 1609 under the pretext of their continued adherence to Islam. This expulsion severely damaged agriculture and crafts, hindering their recovery for a considerable period.
Under Felipe IV, Olivares’ centralizing policies aimed to standardize the contribution of resources and manpower to European wars (Union of Arms). This led to internal uprisings in 1640 in Aragon, Catalonia, and Biscay, as well as Portugal’s declaration of independence from Spain. The conflict with Portugal ended with the Peace of Lisbon in 1668, recognizing Portuguese independence.
The Crisis of 1640
The social and economic crisis was exacerbated by the Thirty Years’ War. The Spanish crown implemented new taxes, sold public offices, and granted nobility titles in exchange for money. This led to social unrest and political opposition against Olivares.
The situation reached its peak when Catalonia and Portugal rebelled, seeking independence. The Catalan Revolt (1640-1652) was driven by anti-centralist sentiments, leading the Catalans to appoint Louis XIII of France as the Count of Barcelona. The crisis was further complicated by opposition from France and Spanish territories in Africa. The Catalans eventually surrendered in 1652, exhausted by the conflict.
The Portuguese Rebellion (1640-1668) was primarily instigated by the nobility, who opposed Castilian rule. They proclaimed the Duke of Braganza as King John IV, declaring Portugal’s independence. This independence was solidified in 1668.
The Decline of the Spanish Empire in Europe: Foreign Policy
Felipe III signed peace treaties with England (1604) and the Twelve Years’ Truce with the Dutch Republic (1609-1621).
Under Felipe IV, peace was disrupted by conflicts in Germany. After the Twelve Years’ Truce, fighting resumed in the Spanish Netherlands, with Spain and Austria battling against Protestant forces in Germany and the Dutch Republic. The Thirty Years’ War concluded with the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which permanently recognized the independence of the United Provinces (Dutch Republic).
Spain also clashed with France until the Peace of the Pyrenees (1659), which resulted in the transfer of Roussillon, Artois, and parts of Sardinia to France.
During the reign of Charles II, Portugal’s independence was officially recognized. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668) brought an end to a conflict with France. Further wars against France and the Dutch Republic concluded with the Treaty of Nijmegen (1678), the Truce of Ratisbon (1684), and the Treaty of Ryswick (1697).
Economic and Social Developments in the 17th Century
The 17th century was a period of significant hardship for Spain, marked by population decline, major epidemics, the expulsion of the Moriscos (1609-1611), emigration, and constant warfare. These factors contributed to economic depletion and recession, leading to debt and bankruptcy.
The Spanish crown sought new sources of revenue through measures such as new taxes, the sale of public offices, the sale of crown lands, and the sale of nobility titles.
Demographic recovery began around 1680. The social structure remained largely based on estates. The nobility expanded, as did the clergy. The small bourgeoisie invested in land and estates.
Farmers were the hardest hit by the crisis, and banditry emerged as a means of escaping poverty.
Cultural Splendor: The Golden Age
Ideology
- God was seen as the Creator and the architect of existence.
- The Church was considered the sole authoritative interpreter of God’s Word.
- The King was believed to be God’s representative on Earth.
- The estates were viewed as integral parts of God’s ordained social order.
Heresy, particularly any suspicion of Judaizing, was perceived as a grave threat to society. The concept of “purity of blood” was enforced, requiring individuals to demonstrate that their ancestors were free from Jewish heritage or any suspicion of heresy. Those who could prove this were considered “Old Christians.”
Crafts were deemed lowly occupations, and those engaged in them were considered ineligible for nobility, the highest honor of the time.
Culture
The first half of the 17th century is known as the “Spanish Golden Age” in literature. Prominent figures include Cervantes, Tirso de Molina, Góngora, Lope de Vega, and Quevedo, all of whom embraced the Baroque style, either through elaborate language (culteranismo) or by exploring new concepts accessible to the common people (conceptismo).
In the second half of the century, Pedro Calderón de la Barca emerged as a leading playwright. The picaresque novel gained popularity, while chivalric romances declined. Political literature also flourished, with Quevedo as a notable contributor.