The Decline of the Spanish Restoration (1902-1923): From Reform Attempts to Dictatorship
The Decline of the Spanish Restoration (1902-1923)
Panorama (1902)
On May 17, 1902, Alfonso XIII swore allegiance to the 1876 Constitution. He had already expressed his willingness to intervene directly in politics (something unbecoming of a constitutional monarch) and closely link the Restoration to the army. The system depended on the dynastic parties to provide solutions to the problems of the time. The death of Cánovas del Castillo and the lack of party unity fractured both the Conservative and Liberal parties, leaving them without a figure capable of dealing with the problems posed by a changing social and economic situation.
Challenges to the System
- Rise of Non-Dynastic Parties: Figures like Antonio Maura in the Conservative Party and José Canalejas in the Liberal Party represented a shift away from traditional dynastic politics. They lacked a unified political agenda or a clear stance on social problems.
- Emergence of Republicanism: The idea of replacing the monarchy with a republic gained traction, leading to the appearance of Republican parties.
- Traditionalist Opposition: Heirs of Carlism opposed the changes and contributed to the disintegration of the existing political order.
- Rise of Nationalism: In Catalonia, the Basque Country, and Galicia, nationalist movements emerged, advocating for regional autonomy.
- Growth of the Labor Movement: Trade unionism, Socialism, and Anarchism gained momentum, challenging the bourgeois monarchy established by Cánovas. The proletarian masses began to make their voices heard, using the limited franchise and even resorting to violence as instruments of progress.
Attempts at Reform (1902-1912)
The disappointment that followed the Disaster of ’98 fueled the idea that Spain’s problems were due to mismanagement and that reforms were necessary. The “Turno Pacífico” (peaceful alternation of power between parties) continued, but internal divisions and corruption persisted.
Maura’s “Revolution from Above”
Conservative leader Antonio Maura proposed a reform plan to eliminate caciquismo (political bossism), reorganize local government, control public spending, and end the war in Morocco. However, the “Tragic Week” in Barcelona (1909) cut his attempt short. The decision to send reserve troops to Melilla to respond to aggression by Moroccan workers triggered demonstrations and a general strike in Barcelona. The ensuing repression and summary trials (including the execution of anarchist educator Ferrer Guardia) led to Maura’s resignation.
Canalejas’ Reforms
José Canalejas, a less authoritarian figure from the left wing of the Liberal party, presided over the government from 1910 to 1912. His achievements included: the “Ley del Candado” (limiting the establishment of new religious orders), the Associations Act (allowing a degree of autonomy to different regions), and the Recruitment Act (introducing conscription). However, he also controlled strikes with an iron fist. His assassination in 1912 by an anarchist ended his reform efforts.
Sinking of the “Turno Pacífico” (1912-1923)
Causes of Failure
Several factors contributed to the failure of the political system established by Cánovas:
- Division within the Conservative party (Maura vs. Dato) and the Liberal party (Romanones vs. García Prieto).
- Interventionism of the King in the formation and dismissal of governments.
- World War I (in which Spain remained neutral) created international instability and economic difficulties.
Crisis of 1917
The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia and the entry of the United States into World War I shook the foundations of the Spanish state. The army formed Juntas de Defensa (defense committees) outside the parliamentary system, and the labor movement radicalized. A general strike paralyzed the country. The system was fatally wounded.
Post-War Tensions
The post-war period was marked by high tension. Strikes were frequent, and social unrest was rampant. The bourgeoisie responded by creating “free” trade unions to counter the influence of socialist and anarchist unions.
The Road to Dictatorship
The Disaster of Annual (1921)
Spain’s presence in Morocco had been a source of conflict for years. The Rif uprising, led by Abd el-Krim, exposed the weaknesses of the Spanish army. The “Disaster of Annual” in 1921, a devastating defeat for Spanish forces, caused a national outcry. Leftist parties demanded an investigation, and public opinion turned against the government and the King.
Primo de Rivera’s Coup
In this context of crisis, General Miguel Primo de Rivera staged a coup in September 1923. He suspended the 1876 Constitution, the cornerstone of the Cánovas system, and established a military dictatorship. This marked the end of the Restoration era and the beginning of a new chapter in Spanish history.