The Democratic Sexenio and the First Spanish Republic (1868-1874)
The Democratic Sexenio (1868-1874)
Revolution of 1868
The Revolution of 1868, also known as “La Gloriosa,” began with the signing of the Ostend Pact in 1866. This pact united diverse political factions against Queen Isabella II, including Unionists (many military, led by Serrano), Progressives (led by Prim), and Democrats (led by Topete). The revolution triumphed on September 19, 1868, with the pronunciamiento in Cadiz, due to weak resistance from the government and the subsequent exile of Isabella II.
Provisional Government
A provisional government was formed, reflecting the varied interests of the revolutionaries. They called for elections to form a constituent assembly based on universal male suffrage. The government was a coalition of Unionists, Progressives, and some Democrats (along with some Republican monarchists).
Constitution of 1869 and Legislative Work
The Constitution of 1869 established a liberal-democratic system with universal male suffrage, national sovereignty, and a broad declaration of rights. It also created trial by jury, addressed judicial reforms, and maintained the monarchy with limited powers. Economic policy focused on liberal principles, including the removal of tariffs, openness to foreign capital, and the establishment of the peseta as the national currency. The Figuerola Tariff marked the end of protectionism.
Opposition to the Government
Opposition came from various groups: Carlists and monarchical supporters of the Bourbons (seeking the return of Alfonso XII), moderate monarchists who wanted changes, and Republicans and labor parties (including anarchists and socialists) who desired a republic and social changes.
Reign of Amadeo I of Savoy (1870-1873)
Prim sought a European king for Spain and chose Amadeo of Savoy. However, Prim’s assassination left the king without his main supporter. Amadeo I faced opposition from Carlists (who launched the Third Carlist War), Alfonsinos (led by Canovas del Castillo), and Republicans. The Church opposed a Savoyard king due to Prim’s earlier requirement for priests to swear allegiance to the constitution. The economic oligarchy also distrusted potential social legislation. Political instability, the Carlist uprising, the Ten Years’ War in Cuba (starting with the Cry of Yara), and federal-republican and anarchist insurrections plagued Amadeo’s reign. Constant elections and changes in government led to the disintegration of the coalition, culminating in Amadeo’s abdication in February 1873.
The First Republic (1873-1874)
With the king’s departure, sovereignty resided in the Cortes, and the First Republic was proclaimed. Revolutionary juntas formed across the country, implementing popular measures, but the central government reversed these actions, leading to riots. A constituent assembly was called (with 60% abstention), aiming for a Federal Republic. However, the project was never fully implemented. The ongoing war in Cuba continued, and Carlist military successes prevented the government from ending the conflict. The Cantonalist movement, led by anarchists and intransigent federalists disillusioned with the Republic, further destabilized the nation. The Republic saw a succession of presidents: Figueras, Pi i Maragall, Salmerón, and Castelar. Castelar, lacking a parliamentary majority, ruled by decree, which led to the coup by General Pavia. The government, now led by Serrano, paved the way for the restoration of the monarchy under Alfonso XII with the Sandhurst Manifesto, promising a liberal, parliamentary monarchy, Catholicism, and order.
Reign of Alfonso XII: The Canovas System
The Canovas system established a parliamentary system with conservative and liberal parties, supported by the bourgeoisie and middle classes, leading to political, economic, and social stability. The system featured a two-party rotation between the Conservatives (led by Canovas) and the Liberals (led by Sagasta).
Constitution of 1876
The Constitution of 1876 was moderate, with potential for a democratic system. Key features included shared sovereignty between the crown and the Cortes, a royal veto power, a bicameral system with an elitist Senate, census suffrage (until universal male suffrage in 1890), a state-supported Church, and a statement of rights governed by restrictive laws.
Pillars of the Canovas System
The Canovas system rested on three pillars: the Crown’s position above political disputes, the army’s submission to civilian authority, and the guaranteed alternation of power between the Conservative and Liberal parties.
Early Reign of Alfonso XII
Significant events included the defeat of the Carlists, the abolition of fueros (regional privileges), the Pact of Zanjón (1878) ending the Ten Years’ War in Cuba, and the abolition of slavery in Cuba (1888).
Regency of Maria Cristina of Austria
Following Alfonso XII’s death, his wife Maria Cristina of Austria served as regent from 1885 to 1902 for their son, the future Alfonso XIII.
Turno System
The two main parties, the Conservatives and Liberals, engaged in a system of controlled alternation of power known as the turno. This system involved manipulated elections, vote buying, and coercion of the electorate, orchestrated by the Ministry of the Interior. Abstention rates reached 80%.
Opposition to the System
Opposition came from Carlists, Republicans (divided into various factions), and rising nationalist movements in Catalonia, the Basque Country, and Galicia.
Labor Movement
The labor movement saw the rise of anarchists (forming the Federation of Workers of the Spanish Region) and socialists (founding the PSOE and UGT). The PSOE gained municipal representation in 1890.
Loss of Colonial Rule: Cuba and the Philippines (1898)
Politics in Cuba
The Ten Years’ War ended with the Pact of Zanjón, but the Cuban Autonomist Party continued to push for reforms. Economic protectionism created difficulties for Cuban trade with the USA. José Martí founded the Cuban Revolutionary Party in 1892, and the Cry of Baire in 1895 marked the start of the Cuban War of Independence.
War in Cuba
Spain sent Valeriano Weyler to Cuba, whose harsh tactics led to international criticism. The assassination of Canovas del Castillo brought Sagasta and the Liberals to power, but their reforms were rejected by the independence movement. The sinking of the USS Maine fueled American intervention.
Crisis of 1898
The Spanish-American War resulted in Spain’s defeat and the loss of Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam. The Treaty of Paris formalized these losses.
Consequences of 1898
The loss of the colonies led to national disillusionment, pessimism, and a sense of decline. The Regenerationist movement emerged, advocating for modernization and reform.
Society and Education (1875-1902)
Spain experienced slow population growth, high emigration, and social inequalities. Education remained largely in the hands of the Church, with the exception of the Institución Libre de Enseñanza, a secular institution founded by Giner de los Ríos.
Regenerationism and Political Crisis (1902-1923)
The period from 1902 to 1923 was marked by political crisis, fueled by the King’s involvement in politics, party divisions, and the rise of new political parties. Social conflicts intensified, the religious question resurfaced, and the military sought a greater political role. Nationalist movements gained strength, and the war in Morocco drained resources.
Reform Attempts
Conservative leader Antonio Maura and Liberal leader José Canalejas attempted reforms, but their efforts were cut short by political instability and Canalejas’s assassination.
Crisis of 1909
The Tragic Week of 1909 in Barcelona was triggered by the war in Morocco and government mismanagement.
Crisis of 1917
The crisis of 1917 was marked by inflation, food shortages, military unrest, and a general strike.
Disaster of Annual (1921)
The Disaster of Annual in Morocco resulted in heavy Spanish losses and further fueled criticism of the government.
Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)
General Primo de Rivera launched a coup in 1923 with the support of King Alfonso XIII. The dictatorship had two phases: the Military Directorate (1923-1925) and the Civil Directory (1925-1930). The dictatorship ended the war in Morocco but faced growing opposition. Following Primo de Rivera’s resignation, General Berenguer attempted to restore constitutional rule, but failed. Admiral Aznar called for municipal elections, the results of which led to Alfonso XIII’s exile and the proclamation of the Second Republic in 1931.