The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera and the Fall of the Spanish Monarchy (1923-1930)
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera and the Collapse of the Monarchy (1923-1930)
International Context
The international context of this period was marked by the crisis of liberal democracies following World War I. These democracies were blamed for the war and faced challenges from both liberal socialism and fascism. Liberal socialism advocated for a strong state governed by a proletarian dictatorship, while fascism promoted an authoritarian state. Although fascism only triumphed in Italy and Germany, it spread across most of Europe.
The Rise of the Dictatorship
Following the coup of September 13, Alfonso XIII instructed Primo de Rivera to form a government, establishing an authoritarian regime. The dictator abolished the 1876 constitution and dissolved Parliament, ending the system inspired by Cánovas and Sagasta. The dictatorship was initially welcomed by many, including the neutral masses tired of chaos, the military, the Church, and the king. Primo de Rivera presented it as a temporary measure, gaining support from sectors like the Catalan bourgeoisie, the socialist Republicans, and Alejandro Lerroux.
Phases of the Dictatorship
The dictatorship can be divided into two phases:
- The Military Directory (1923-1925): Characterized by the achievement of social peace, public order, management of the central, provincial, and municipal administration, and the end of the war in Morocco.
- The Civil Directory (1925-1930): Following the achievements of the Military Directory, Primo de Rivera decided to continue the dictatorship, incorporating civilian politicians into the government. Figures like Calvo Sotelo and the Count of Guadalhorce became prominent. The decision to continue the regime sparked rejection and criticism from many.
Justification and Economic Policy
The dictatorship was justified by its works rather than ideological support. It implemented an interventionist economic policy to overcome the crisis caused by the war. Tariff protection was increased, and domestic production was encouraged through tax incentives and credit. Basic industries like steel, heavy chemicals, and cement experienced increased production. The growth of tourism was also encouraged. A strong public works policy was undertaken, creating an extensive road network, improving railways, and addressing water management issues. This economic policy benefited from the “Roaring Twenties” in the international context, but the enormous expenses increased public debt. When the favorable international context changed, foreign capital investment was withdrawn, the peseta depreciated, and the economy declined.
Political Actions
The dictatorship created a single party with fascist influence, the Patriotic Union, and attempted to draft a new constitution.
The Fall of the Dictatorship
The Great Depression and Resignation
The 1929 Depression severely impacted the Spanish economy, leading to business closures and unemployment. This sparked widespread criticism, leaving Primo de Rivera isolated. He resigned on January 30, 1930, and went into exile in Paris. Alfonso XIII then appointed Dámaso Berenguer, an old soldier, to form a government.
The Collapse of the Monarchy of Alfonso XIII
The end of Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship in 1930 paved the way for the fall of the monarchy and the proclamation of the Second Republic on April 14, 1931. The monarchy had been significantly weakened by the king’s endorsement of Primo de Rivera, who was accused of violating the 1876 Constitution by dissolving Parliament and failing to call new elections. The prestige of the old dynastic parties declined, some monarchists withdrew their support, and opposition grew among Republicans, socialists, and intellectuals. The Catalan problem intensified, and labor mobilization increased.
Dámaso Berenguer’s Government and Growing Opposition
Following Primo de Rivera’s resignation, Alfonso XIII tasked Dámaso Berenguer with forming a government to restore constitutional normality without jeopardizing the monarchy. Berenguer ruled by decree and delayed the convening of a Constituent Assembly, leading many politicians to see a republican regime as the only solution. Public unrest grew, and Republican, socialist, and Catalan politicians signed the Pact of San Sebastian in 1930 to end the monarchy.
Military Uprisings
In mid-1930, an anti-monarchist conspiracy was planned within the military. However, the revolt launched by captains Fermín Galán and Ángel García Hernández in Jaca failed due to poor weather and lack of support. The Cuatro Vientos aerodrome insurrection was also unsuccessful. The execution of the rebel captains in Jaca and the imprisonment of the Revolutionary Committee in Madrid provided the Republic with martyrs and heroes. Berenguer was viewed as a despot and forced to resign in February 1931.
Admiral Aznar’s Government and the Fall of the Monarchy
Alfonso XIII then appointed Admiral Juan Bautista Aznar to form a government, which included figures from the old dynastic parties. Municipal elections were held to create a sense of freedom, but the results favored Republicans in major cities, while monarchists dominated rural areas. The outcome was interpreted as a Republican triumph. The Republic was proclaimed in Barcelona and Éibar. In Madrid, the Revolutionary Committee was attacked by Civil Guard director José Sanjurjo, who took control. Advised by the Count of Romanones, the king abdicated and went into exile from Cartagena.