The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera and the Rise of the Second Spanish Republic
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)
Causes of the Coup
Several factors explain why a military dictatorship began to be viewed as a solution to the crisis in Spain by the gentry, much of the middle classes, and the Army:
- Discontent in the army after the Disaster of Annual and the desire to avoid the consequences of the Picasso dossier for some important generals, including General Berenguer.
- Rise of peripheral nationalisms and the rise of Republicans and the labor movement.
- The triumph of fascism in Italy after the March on Rome in 1922 and the rise of Mussolini.
Primo de Rivera’s Coup (1923)
Miguel Primo de Rivera, Captain General of Catalonia, rebelled on September 13, 1923. The coup was met with immediate understanding and support from King Alfonso XIII. The rebels declared a state of war, the suspension of constitutional guarantees, and the dissolution of the Cortes. The regime of the 1876 Constitution was replaced, amidst popular indifference and with little resistance, by a military dictatorship.
Military Directory (1923-1925)
After the coup, the dictator Primo de Rivera became the sole minister, advised by a Military Directory. The new government represented the same power block that had dominated the country during the Restoration: the oligarchy of landowners and industrialists. The Military Directory took swift action:
- Banned the Catalan flag and anthem and restricted the Catalan language to the private sphere.
- Implemented an “iron fist” policy in all matters relating to public order.
- Formed the Patriotic Union, a single party under the leadership of a soldier, following the pattern set by Mussolini’s fascist Italy.
The Directory achieved success in Africa. The Landing of Al Hoceima in 1925 ended the resistance of the Rif tribes. Their leader, Abd-el-Krim, surrendered to the French Moroccan authorities. The end of the war in Morocco increased the dictator’s popularity.
Civil Directory (1925-1930)
In late 1925, a civilian government headed by Primo de Rivera replaced the Military Directory, institutionalizing the dictatorship. In 1927, a National Consultative Assembly was formed, consisting mostly of Patriotic Union members elected by limited suffrage. Primo de Rivera again followed the Italian model, in this case, the Council of Fascism. The Assembly quickly failed in its attempt to draft a basic law to act as a constitution for the dictatorship.
The regime also imitated the social model of Italian fascism, establishing the Corporate Labor Organization, a type of union that tried to arbitrate between employers and workers. Again, the attempt to institutionalize Primo de Rivera’s regime failed.
Opposition to the Dictatorship and the Fall of Primo de Rivera
Opposition to the dictatorship embraced a wide political spectrum: liberal and conservative Republicans, socialists, anarchists, intellectuals, and the student movement. A key element was the growing discontent within the army due to Primo de Rivera’s arbitrariness.
After the Wall Street Crash of 1929, economic problems spread rapidly worldwide. Social unrest, with the return of strikes, increased opposition to the dictatorship (including peseta devaluation). On January 27, 1930, an elderly and ailing Primo de Rivera, lacking social support, submitted his resignation to the monarch, who quickly accepted it. Two months later, the dictator died in exile in Paris.
End of the Monarchy and the Proclamation of the Second Republic
The “Dictablanda” of General Berenguer
Following Primo de Rivera’s resignation, Alfonso XIII appointed General Berenguer as head of government. This began a period humorously known as the “Dictablanda” (soft dictatorship), which unsuccessfully tried to return to the pre-1923 situation. The traditional parties, liberals and conservatives, were unable to articulate a party system acceptable to Spanish society. Moreover, only disreputable figures like Romanones or De La Cierva agreed to cooperate with Berenguer.
The slow return to constitutional freedoms was exploited by an opposition that was gaining increasing support. In August 1930, Republicans, Socialists, and other opposition groups signed the Pact of San Sebastian, pledging to overthrow the monarchy and establish a democratic regime. To coordinate the opposition’s efforts, a Revolutionary Committee chaired by Niceto Alcalá Zamora was formed.
Growing Opposition and the Municipal Elections
Alfonso XIII, a staunch conservative, became increasingly isolated. Many in the military began to view the Republican cause favorably. Even the CNT supported the conspiracy to establish a Republic. On December 15, 1930, a Republican military uprising in Jaca failed. Its leaders, Galán and García Hernández, were tried and executed. Most of the Revolutionary Committee was arrested amid growing anti-monarchist discontent. Berenguer resigned on February 14, 1931, giving way to a new government headed by Admiral Aznar. The new cabinet called for municipal elections on April 12, gradually returning to constitutional legality.
However, the local elections became a plebiscite on the monarchy. The overwhelming victory of Republican and Socialist candidates in urban areas precipitated the king’s abdication and the proclamation of the Second Republic on April 14, 1931.