The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera in Spain (1923-1930)
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)
Political Instability and the Coup
Following a period of significant political instability and social unrest in Morocco, coupled with demands from republicans, nationalists, and socialists, the Restoration era ended. On September 13th, Miguel Primo de Rivera led a military coup, which King Alfonso XIII endorsed, granting him power. Initially, Primo de Rivera’s coup was widely welcomed, seen as a means to regenerate the country. He garnered support from various sectors, including landowners, the industrial and financial bourgeoisie, Catalan nationalists, and even elements of the labor movement like the PSOE and UGT. Opposition came primarily from the CNT, PCE, intellectuals, and students.
The Directory and Early Reforms (1923-1925)
Primo de Rivera established a Directory composed entirely of military generals. Constitutional guarantees were suspended, and the army took control of provincial governance. In 1924, he created the Patriotic Union, a national party, and introduced a statute regulating municipal councils. An attempted tax reform, including direct taxes, faced resistance from conservatives. Social unrest decreased due to the economic prosperity of the 1920s, coupled with restrictions on freedoms and the creation of a militia. The Moroccan issue was addressed through a joint Franco-Spanish military operation against Abd el-Krim, culminating in his surrender in 1925.
The Civil Directorate and Corporatism (1925-1930)
In 1925, a Civil Directorate replaced the military Directory. This period saw the establishment of labor corporations intended to supersede political parties. These corporations aimed to resolve conflicts and establish labor conditions through sectoral committees, culminating in the High Labor Council. However, this system faced opposition from landowners. In 1927, a National Consultative Assembly was created, with half its members appointed by the King and Primo de Rivera, and the other half representing provinces.
Economic Policies and Achievements
Reduced military expenditure in Morocco allowed for investments in education, including the construction of primary schools. Infrastructure projects focused on road construction, railway modernization, and water management through dams and irrigation canals. Monopolies were created in key sectors like Campsa, Telefónica, and Fosforera. While these policies reduced unemployment, they also increased public debt.
The Fall of the Dictatorship and the Second Republic
Opposition to Primo de Rivera grew from 1926 onwards, encompassing intellectuals, students, the PCE, CNT, republican nationalists, workers, and even factions within the army. The economic crash of 1929 further weakened the regime, leading to the devaluation of the peseta and a trade deficit. In January 1930, Primo de Rivera resigned and went into exile. General Berenguer’s attempts to restore constitutional legality proved too slow, leading to further discontent. The Pact of San Sebastián (August 1930) united various anti-monarchist forces, including republicans, monarchists, socialists, and intellectuals, with the goal of establishing a republic. Following the failed Jaca uprising in December 1930 and continued social unrest, Berenguer resigned and was replaced by Admiral Aznar. Municipal elections in April 1932 effectively became a referendum on the monarchy. With republican victories in major cities, the Second Republic was proclaimed on April 14, 1931, and King Alfonso XIII went into exile.