The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera in Spain
Introduction
Primo de Rivera, nicknamed “The Iron Duke”, was a Spanish dictator who ruled from 1923 to 1930. His reign, supported by King Alfonso XIII, marked a period of authoritarianism and political repression. This document will explore the origins, policies, and eventual downfall of Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship, as well as its impact on Spanish society and the transition to the Second Republic.
1. Origins of the Dictatorship
On September 13, 1923, General Miguel Primo de Rivera led a coup d’état, which was well-received by King Alfonso XIII. The fates of the dictatorship and the monarchy became intertwined, with the military and figures like General Sanjurjo providing crucial support. Alfonso XIII’s backing stemmed from his belief that the constitution hindered his ability to effectively rule. Prior to the coup, attempts were made to involve other political figures, such as García Prieto, but ultimately, Primo de Rivera formed the government. The dictatorship’s initial policies strained the relationship with the king. Opposition arose from the Communist Party and the CNT, leading to strikes in various cities. These were unsuccessful, resulting in arrests and the eventual outlawing of these organizations. Support for the dictatorship came from the African Army, the Church, the aristocracy, the bourgeoisie, and nationalist newspapers. The PSOE and UGT initially adopted a neutral stance, allowing them to maintain a presence in the public sphere. This collaboration with the regime would later draw criticism after the dictatorship’s fall.
2.1 Formation of the Military Directory and Political Agenda
- The Military Directory, chaired by Primo de Rivera, assumed control of the government.
- Primo de Rivera declared the Directory accountable to the king and outlined its agenda: resolving the Moroccan conflict, addressing Catalan separatism, curbing the Church’s influence, quelling social unrest, tackling the political crisis, and combating political corruption and terrorism.
2.2 Measures for Regeneration
- To ensure public order, a state of war was declared, and civil and military leaders were dismissed.
- The constitution was suspended, and political parties and trade unions were banned.
- Courts were closed.
- These measures resulted in a significant decrease in terrorist attacks (1260 attacks were recorded).
2.3 Political Attitude and the Moroccan Question
Primo de Rivera’s efforts at political regeneration aimed to eliminate corruption. In 1924, the Patriotic Union party was established as the sole political party, advocating for a centralized monarchy. The party drew support from party leaders and landowners but lacked popular backing. In 1927, a National Assembly was created, further consolidating the dictator’s power. The Moroccan crisis deepened with the Spanish military’s struggles in Alhucemas. Primo de Rivera aimed to withdraw troops from Morocco, facing resistance from the bourgeoisie and oligarchy who had vested interests in the region. A joint Franco-Spanish offensive against Moroccan insurgents resulted in the capture of a rebel leader. In 1925, the African Army was strengthened, and the Vagrancy Act was introduced. Initially welcomed by various sectors, Primo de Rivera reshuffled his government, appointing civilians like José Calvo Sotelo to ministerial positions.
3. The Civil Directory (1925-1930)
3.1 State Intervention and Economic Policies
Primo de Rivera’s government transitioned towards civilian leadership, with figures like Eduardo Aunós, José Calvo Sotelo, and the Count of Guadalhorce taking on prominent roles. The regime drew inspiration from Italian Fascism, emphasizing family, municipalities, and professional organizations. José Calvo Sotelo, the Minister of Economy and Finance, implemented fiscal reforms, including a new income tax (IRPF), based on the ideas of Joaquín Costa. The Count of Guadalhorce spearheaded public works projects, including the construction of a 7,000 km road network, the development of wetlands, the creation of River Basins, and the modernization of the railway system. State-owned companies like CAMPSA and Telefónica were established. In the social sphere, Minister Eduardo Aunós implemented paternalistic policies, including maternity insurance, assistance for large families, and increased social security benefits. Joint committees on education were formed, leading to the creation of 5,000 schools and 5,000 teaching positions.
4. Fall of the Dictatorship and End of the Monarchy
4.1 The “Dictablanda” of Berenguer
By 1929, Primo de Rivera’s popularity had waned, and discontent with his policies grew. His declining health further weakened his position. Facing mounting opposition and the withdrawal of support from former allies, Primo de Rivera attempted to secure the backing of the army but failed. On January 30, 1930, he resigned and died in exile in Paris shortly after. King Alfonso XIII appointed Admiral Juan Bautista Aznar as the new head of government. Aznar’s government called for elections to a Constituent Assembly, but this initiative lacked support, leading to his resignation. In early 1931, Aznar was replaced by Admiral Dámaso Berenguer. Municipal elections held in April 1931 resulted in a resounding victory for Republicans. Faced with this outcome, King Alfonso XIII abdicated on April 14, 1931, paving the way for the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic.