The Division of the Roman Empire and the Rise of New Powers
The Division of the Roman Empire
The Roman Empire’s division in 395 AD is a pivotal moment in history. The Western Roman Empire, with its capital in Rome, fell in 476 AD. The Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire, with its capital in Constantinople, persisted until 1453 AD.
The Beginning of the Middle Ages
The Middle Ages, spanning from 476 AD to 1453 AD, saw the rise of influential cultures, including the Frankish Kingdom (which evolved into the Carolingian Empire), the Byzantine Empire, and the Islamic world.
The Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire experienced significant territorial expansion under Emperor Justinian’s rule. However, from the second half of the 7th century, it lost conquered territories to barbarians, Persians, and Muslims. The empire’s decline began in the 11th century, culminating in the Ottoman conquest in the 15th century. The Byzantine Empire was characterized by a strong central government under the emperor, a territorial division into provinces (themata), an efficient administration, and a powerful army. Its economy relied heavily on agriculture and trade, with craft guilds emerging. Byzantine art and architecture are renowned, exemplified by the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and St. Mark’s Basilica in Venice. Mosaics and icons were prominent art forms.
The Carolingian Empire
The Carolingian Empire emerged from the Frankish Kingdom, formed by Germanic tribes settled in Gaul. Clovis unified these tribes. The Carolingian dynasty, beginning with Pepin the Short, created a vast empire. Charlemagne, the most significant Carolingian monarch, was crowned Emperor in 800 AD. The Treaty of Verdun in 843 AD marked the beginning of the empire’s decline. The Carolingian economy was primarily agricultural. The rise of territorial lordships gradually led to feudalism, causing a decline in trade and the importance of cities as economic centers. Education flourished, with schools established at the Palace School of Aachen, teaching the trivium and quadrivium. Carolingian art and architecture are represented by the Palatine Chapel in Aachen and monasteries built according to the Benedictine Rule. Miniatures, mosaics, and metalwork were important art forms.
Islamic Civilization
Islamic civilization originated on the Arabian Peninsula. Islam, the religion founded by Muhammad, spread rapidly. Key tenets of Islam include belief in one God, acceptance of Muhammad as his prophet, prayer five times daily facing Mecca, charity to the needy, fasting during Ramadan, and pilgrimage to Mecca. After Muhammad’s death, the rapid expansion of Islam continued under his successors, the caliphs. The Umayyad Caliphate established its capital in Damascus, followed by the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad. The Abbasid Caliphate began to decline in the 10th century, finally falling to the Mongols in 1258. The Islamic economy thrived on agriculture, pastoralism, and extensive trade networks, including the Silk Road. Islamic society was stratified, with a ruling elite, a middle class, and a large peasant population. Muslim cities were characterized by irregular street patterns and houses built around courtyards. Islamic culture absorbed and advanced knowledge from conquered territories. Islamic art and architecture are exemplified by mosques and palaces. Key features of mosques include the minaret, mihrab, qibla wall, prayer hall, and courtyard with a fountain for ablutions.