The Enlightenment and its Impact on the Spanish Ancien Régime
The Spanish Ancien Régime
The Ancien Régime in Spain, a product of feudalism’s decline, persisted until the Portuguese Liberal Revolution of 1789, coinciding with the French Revolution. Politically, under Hapsburg and Bourbon rule, the system fluctuated between authoritarianism and absolute monarchy. Governed from Madrid, the political-administrative structure, influenced by the Nueva Planta decrees, lacked a unified Spanish state. Different kingdoms coexisted under the king’s rule.
Social Structure
Society was divided into three estates: two privileged classes (nobility and clergy) and the Third Estate, comprising peasants, townspeople, and urban workers. The Third Estate cultivated the land, residing in villages. Cities with 50,000 inhabitants were rare, but rural-to-urban migration began mid-18th century. Pacts between the monarchy and nobility resulted in 95% of Spaniards living in the countryside, yet few owned land due to its monopolization by the clergy and aristocracy.
Economic Conditions
Agriculture suffered from poor weather and limited technological development, leading to widespread famine. Fallow soil depletion and declining crop yields marked an agricultural crisis. The 18th century saw the introduction of new crops like corn and potatoes, and new crop rotation systems. Industry was craft-based, organized in guilds with few workers due to limited equipment and reliance on human, animal, water, or wind power. Trade was primarily long-distance (triangular trade), hindered by poor communication and a lack of a unified market.
Population Trends
High birth rates were offset by high mortality due to epidemics, malnutrition, and poor hygiene, resulting in low population growth. Scarce agricultural yields and harvest fluctuations triggered recurring subsistence crises. However, a demographic shift began in the 18th century with reduced mortality due to increased food surpluses, better nutrition, and some advancements in hygiene and medicine.
In summary, the Ancien Régime was characterized by absolute monarchy, a society based on estates and inequality, a manorial economic system coexisting with emerging commercial capitalism, and a stagnant population due to demographic crises.
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment, an ideological movement originating in 18th-century France, rapidly spread throughout Europe. Its core principle was an unwavering faith in reason, rejecting authority, tradition, and revelation. Anything not validated by reason was deemed delusion or superstition. Enlightenment thinkers vehemently opposed the Ancien Régime. Key figures include Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau.
Key Features of the Enlightenment:
- Rationalism: Emphasis on reason as the primary means of understanding.
- Optimism: Belief in nature as a perfect machine and the inevitability of human progress.
- Human-centric: Focus on the human being, inherently good by nature.
- Individual Progress: Belief in personal growth through individual effort.
- Anti-absolutist: Opposition to absolute monarchy and advocacy for alternative forms of government.
The Enlightenment in Spain
The Enlightenment’s arrival in Spain lagged behind the rest of Europe. Enlightened despotism emerged, a political ideology where the king held absolute power, epitomized by the phrase “Everything for the people, but without the people.”
Key aspects included economic revitalization by challenging the privileged classes’ land control, implementing reforms to stimulate growth, and promoting education as a means of overcoming backwardness. The Royal Economic Society of Friends of the Country was established to disseminate useful sciences, foster economic development, and address issues beyond the state’s purview.
The Spanish Enlightenment reached its zenith under Carlos III. His ministers aimed to elevate the country’s cultural level, improve the economy, and drive progress. This era saw writers and thinkers like Jovellanos, Feijoo, and Campomanes critique 18th-century Spanish society and champion Enlightenment ideals.