The Era of Revolutions: Shaping the Modern World

Posted on Feb 11, 2025 in History

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1. The Era of Revolutions

From the mid-eighteenth century, various political events transformed Europe and America, laying the foundations of the contemporary world:

  • The English colonies of North America became independent, giving rise to the U.S.
  • France underwent the French Revolution (1789), ending the former regime.
  • The Congress of Vienna attempted to restore the pre-Revolution situation, but the revolutionary and liberal spirit was reborn in the 1820s, 1830s, and 1848.
  • Neoclassicism developed in the cultural field. Romanticism emerged as a reaction against it.

2. The Birth of the U.S.

From 1776 to 1825, a wave of revolutions swept through the American continent, influencing European revolutionary processes.

2.1 Reasons for Independence

  • Many English colonists had established themselves in the Thirteen Colonies since the early eighteenth century.
  • Conflict began when Britain imposed new taxes on its North American colonies.
  • In 1773, Britain attempted to subdue the colonists with the army, making war inevitable.

2.2 The Facts

On July 4, 1776, the Thirteen Colonies proclaimed their Declaration of Independence in Philadelphia.

3. The French Revolution

3.1 Causes of the French Revolution

  1. Economic Causes:
    • France helped the 13 Colonies of the USA gain independence from England.
    • Poor harvests in France led to rising bread prices.
    • The court of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette spent lavishly on luxuries.
  2. Social Causes:
    • The Third Estate (burghers, peasants, and workers) paid 90% of the taxes.
    • The nobility and clergy refused to pay taxes, despite Louis XVI’s attempts to make them do so.
  3. Political and Ideological Causes:

    The Enlightenment thinkers Montisquieu, Rousseau, and Voltaire influenced the French Revolution.

3.2 Phases of the Revolution

The king was forced to convene the Estates-General in 1789.

  • The National Assembly and the Riots (1789). The Third Estate formed the National Assembly to create a constitution.
  • The Constituent Assembly (1789 to 1791). The National Assembly transformed into the Constituent Assembly, abolishing feudal privileges and drafting the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.

3.3 Consequences

  • Disappearance of the Old Regime.
  • The king transitioned to a constitutional monarchy, recognizing national sovereignty.

3.4 The Napoleonic Empire (1804 to 1815)

Napoleon was crowned emperor in 1804. His main actions included:

  • Foreign Policy: His empire stretched across Europe, challenging the European powers. Napoleon’s troops were defeated in 1813 at the Battle of Leipzig.

4. The Unification of Italy and Germany

Italy

  • Main Characters: King Victor Emmanuel II and Cavour.
  • Events: The Kingdom of Piedmont expelled Austria from Lombardy, and the states of central Italy joined Piedmont.

Germany

  • Protagonists: Led by Otto von Bismarck, the strongest states were Austria and Prussia.
  • Events: Austria and Prussia fought, with Prussia winning.

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5. War and Revolution

Independence War

Charles IV turned away from state affairs and left command to Manuel Godoy. Godoy’s relations with France went through several stages:

  • The execution of King Louis XVI of France.
  • Spain allied with France against Britain with the Treaties of San Ildefonso (1796 and 1800). Spain was defeated in the Battle of Trafalgar (1805).
  • Godoy signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau with Napoleon (1807), allowing French troops to enter Spain to invade Portugal.
  • The El Escorial Conspiracy failed.
  • Godoy attempted to move the royal family to Seville and then to America, but the Riot of Aranjuez started. Godoy was dismissed, and Ferdinand VII took the throne.
  • Charles IV and Ferdinand VII were taken to Bayonne and renounced the throne to Joseph Bonaparte.
  • The Independence War started on May 2, 1808.

The Liberal Revolution: The Constitution of 1812

On March 19, 1812, the Cortes of Cadiz enacted the first Spanish Constitution. Key laws included:

  • The abolition of nobility privileges.
  • Recognition of freedoms.

These laws challenged the Old Regime.

Setback of Liberalism: Fernando VII

  • The Absolutist Six-Year Period (1814 to 1820): King Ferdinand VII declared the Constitution “null and void” and restored the Old Regime.
  • The Liberal Triennium (1820 – 1823):