The European Alliance System Before World War I
Peace Army (1888)
In 1888, the year Kaiser Wilhelm II ascended to the German throne, a shift in European diplomacy began. Unlike Bismarck, Wilhelm II abandoned the balance of power policy in favor of Weltpolitik, a policy of global expansion. This led to Bismarck’s dismissal and a weakening of Germany’s diplomatic position. Allies became ambiguous, and distrust grew, particularly between England and Germany over North Africa. Economic ties strengthened between Russia and France, leading to a Franco-Russian alliance. Russia’s expansionist ambitions in the East led to conflict with China and Japan, weakening Russia internally and reinforcing its alliance with France. Germany, under Wilhelm II, focused on building a powerful navy to support its colonial ambitions, alarming England and prompting it to seek alliances with Japan and France, eventually leading to the Allied bloc in 1914.
The Alliance Systems
The Dual Alliance (1879)
This system was based on the Austro-German agreement, essentially an alliance against Russia. It offered Austria military assistance if attacked by Russia and neutrality if attacked by another power. This marked a departure from the Three Emperors’ League. However, Austria-Hungary was not prepared to confront France and clarified that the alliance was not a threat to France.
The Three Emperors’ League (1881)
Russia, feeling isolated, sought to rejoin the German and Austrian fold. Following the assassination of Alexander II, his successor, Alexander III, a conservative like Bismarck, signed an agreement with Germany and Austria-Hungary. This agreement focused on combating terrorism and socialism and renewed the Three Emperors’ League, with each power pledging neutrality in case of conflict involving one of the others. This agreement lasted for three years, during which the powers maintained a semblance of cooperation.
The Triple Alliance (1882/1887)
The third agreement was the Austro-Italian-German pact. Bismarck signed a secret agreement with Italy, capitalizing on France’s occupation of Tunisia, which angered Italy. Simultaneously, tensions were high between Italians and French in Marseille. This agreement solidified the Triple Alliance, with Italy joining Germany and Austria-Hungary.
The Triple Alliance and England (1887-1914)
Bismarck was cautious about colonial expansion, aware of Germany’s limited naval power and his desire to avoid antagonizing England. However, Germany’s gradual expansion created distrust in England, leading to closer diplomatic ties between Paris and London. Bismarck skillfully negotiated a pact between the United Kingdom, Italy, and Germany to contain French expansion in North Africa. While Bismarck failed to maintain the Three Emperors’ League, he secured a Reinsurance Treaty with Russia, ensuring Russian neutrality in a Franco-German conflict and German non-intervention in a potential Austro-Russian conflict. The overarching goal of this system was to contain French expansion.
The Entente Cordiale
In response to the Triple Alliance, the Entente Cordiale emerged in 1904, initially comprising England, Japan, and France. Russia joined this entente three years later, forming the core of the Allied powers that would oppose the Central Powers in the First World War.