The European Union Political System

Posted on Dec 2, 2024 in Social sciences

Chapter 12: The Political System of the European Union

Scheme

1. Formation of the European Union

2. Political and Institutional Organization

• The European Commission
• The European Council
• The Council of Ministers
• The European Parliament
• The Court of Justice

1. Formation of the European Union

The European integration process emerged from post-World War II reconstruction efforts. A political climate prioritizing democracy, peace, and societal rebuilding influenced this process. The Cold War’s global hegemony, led by the United States and the Soviet Union, fostered approaches for military and economic cooperation and a common long-term policy in Europe. These factors catalyzed the European unification movement. In 1946, Winston Churchill called for the creation of a “United States of Europe.”

Early European organizations focused on military cooperation. The Brussels Treaty (1948), signed by France, Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg, established a defensive military alliance and an advisory committee of foreign ministers. A year later, these countries, the United States, and Canada signed the North Atlantic Treaty (NATO), later joined by Norway, Iceland, Denmark, Greece, and Turkey.

Economically, the Benelux (1943) foreshadowed the European Economic Community (EEC). The Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC), created in 1948 under the Marshall Plan, failed to dismantle trade barriers and became the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in 1961. The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), established by the 1951 Treaty of Paris (France, Germany, Italy, and the Benelux countries), marked the start of European integration. In 1957, these six countries signed the Treaty of Rome, creating the EEC and the European Energy Community (Euratom). The EEC aimed to establish a common market with a customs union, removing trade barriers and implementing common policies in agriculture, transport, and external trade. Four institutions were established: the Commission, Council of Ministers, Parliamentary Assembly, and Court of Justice, along with an advisory Economic and Social Committee (ESC). Trade barriers disappeared in 1968, despite challenges in common agricultural policy agreements. The EEC’s success led Britain, Denmark, Norway, and Ireland to apply for membership in 1961, though France, under General de Gaulle, rejected Britain’s application. Britain, Ireland, and Denmark joined in 1972 (Norway held a referendum with a negative result), coinciding with leadership changes in Germany (Helmut Schmidt), France (Valéry Giscard d’Estaing), and Great Britain (Harold Wilson).

The 1970s economic crisis impacted the EEC and its members. The European Monetary System (EMS) aimed to create a stable monetary zone. The ECU (European Currency Unit) became the common unit of account. National differences persisted, reflected in the first European Parliament elections (1979). Margaret Thatcher’s election fueled Euroscepticism, reasserting British national sovereignty concerns. Disagreements continued until the UK’s EEC budget contribution was reduced and a committee examined institutional issues, seeking consensus among members.

In 1984, Jacques Delors became Commission President, revitalizing integration with the White Paper, outlining the Internal Market’s achievement, border control removal, and tax barrier elimination by 1992. The Single European Act (SEA), replacing the Treaty of Rome, took effect on July 1, 1987, after Greece, Portugal, and Spain joined the EEC. The SEA reformed institutions, streamlining Council decision-making with qualified majority voting and expanding Parliament, Commission, and Court of Justice powers. It established a “Europe without borders” and addressed monetary issues, EMS, research, technology, environment, and social policies. Progress in common foreign policy was limited.

The 1990 European Rome Summit aimed to transform the Community into a politically driven European Union. Two Intergovernmental Conferences (IGCs) focused on Political Union (PU) and Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), the latter establishing the European Central Bank (ECB) and its predecessor, the European Monetary Institute (EMI). Negotiations addressed political differences, aiming to “strengthen democratic legitimacy, streamline institutions, ensure political, monetary, and economic cohesion, and define and implement a common foreign and security policy.” At the Maastricht Summit, the twelve member states signed the Treaty on European Union (TEU), setting a 1999 EMU timetable and a single currency, with three pillars: the European Community (EC), Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), and Cooperation in Justice and Home Affairs (CJHA). It strengthened existing and added new competencies (health, education, industry, consumer protection, and trans-European networks). Treaty ratification occurred through parliamentary means or referendums (Ireland, Denmark, and France). Monetary turmoil in 1992 led to the pound sterling and lira leaving the EMS and the peseta’s devaluation, with adjustments to other currencies.

Sweden, Finland, and Austria joined in 1995, creating the Europe of Fifteen, altering Council voting weights. The European Parliament expanded to 626 MEPs. A Reflection Group formed in Messina prepared for the 1996 IGC, presenting its report at the Turin Summit. Its objectives included strengthening EU citizenship, preparing for enlargement, and enhancing external action capacity. Labour’s victory in Britain signaled a shift from anti-European stances, and with Lionel Jospin’s win in France, thirteen of fifteen member states had socialist governments.

The Treaty of Amsterdam (May 1999) was influenced by the first EU government crisis, leading to the Commission’s resignation over financial irregularities, impacting Agenda 2000 negotiations. Romano Prodi became Commission President, strengthening the role to avoid conflicts and reorganizing the administration, aiming for reform by early 2000.

2. Political and Institutional Organization

2.1. European Commission

The European Commission comprises the College of Commissioners and a bureaucracy (DGs). Commissioners are appointed by member states (larger countries appoint two, others one), totaling twenty, including the President, subject to Parliament’s investiture vote. The President and Commissioners are nominated by member states and serve five-year renewable terms. The Commission oversees treaty implementation, manages and promotes EU policies, and manages the budget, European funds, and aid programs. It operates collegially, using various procedures for efficiency. Romano Prodi’s reforms aimed for greater rationality and pluralism in the Commission’s composition, balancing regional representation, political forces, and gender. Portfolio allocation remains a debated issue, linked to national interests. The mismatch between Commissioners (20) and DGs (24) complicates defining competencies. DGs, similar to ministries, are the basic administrative units. DGs vary in size (200-400 staff). Coordination and communication between DGs occur through the Cabinet. The Commission has five horizontal services: General Secretariat, Legal Service, Spokesperson’s Office, Translation Service, and Statistical Office. The Commission, as “guardian of the treaties,” ensures compliance with EU law, manages and implements policies, and oversees budget execution.

Presidents of the European Commission, 1958-1999

Source: European Parliament (http://www.europarl.eu/).

DGs of the European Commission

Source: European Parliament (http://www.europarl.eu/).

2.2. The European Council

The European Council consists of biannual summits of Heads of State and Government, assisted by foreign ministers and the Commission President. Meeting in the country holding the EU Presidency, it provides policy recommendations without legal effect. Preparation involves foreign ministers and government officials. Regular Councils occur in June and December, with special councils possible. It focuses on political union, economic, monetary, financial, external relations, and internal policies.

2.3. The Council of Ministers

The Council of Ministers holds the EU’s legislative function. Composed of ministers from each member state, it makes major decisions. The Presidency rotates alphabetically every six months, responsible for agenda preparation, meetings, consensus-building, policy coordination, and representing the Council to Parliament and the Commission. The Council’s sectoral nature means relevant ministers meet for each policy area. The General Affairs Council (foreign ministers) meets monthly to discuss integration issues. The Council acts on Commission proposals, prepared by the Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER), supported by working groups. COREPER reviews and negotiates proposals, informing governments. Council meetings involve debates on unresolved issues. Voting weights are based on population. Decisions are made unanimously, by qualified majority (62 votes, needing ten states’ support), or simple majority (44 of 87 votes). A blocking minority (26 votes) can delay proposals. The Ioannina Compromise (1993) allows 23-25 votes to trigger negotiations. Social Protocol votes require a qualified majority of 77 votes (excluding the UK).

2.4. The European Parliament

The European Parliament (EP), directly elected by EU citizens, gained significance since the SEA. Initially with limited political but strong budgetary powers, its influence has grown. MEPs are elected via universal suffrage, with varying electoral systems. Seat distribution reflects member state populations (6 for Luxembourg, 99 for Germany). Voter turnout has been low, influenced by national politics and limited European content in campaigns. The 1999 elections saw the lowest turnout, reflecting public attitudes towards the EU. The European People’s Party (EPP) is the largest center-right group. The Party of European Socialists (PES) represents the European left. The Party of European Liberal Democrats and Reform Party (ELDR) is the third largest, characterized by its diversity. Other groups include the Confederal Group of the European United Left/Nordic Green Left (GUE/NGL), the Union for Europe of the Nations (UEN), and others. The EPP and PSE dominate, but decisions often involve consensus. A 1989 pact alternated the EP Presidency, though broken by the EPP in 1999. The EP holds plenary sessions in Strasbourg and Brussels. Committees meet in Brussels, along with political groups. The EP’s structure includes the Presidency, Bureau, Conference of Presidents, Quaestors, and committees. The President represents the EP externally and chairs sessions. The Bureau manages activities. The Conference of Presidents sets the agenda. Quaestors handle administrative matters. Committees prepare plenary work. Joint parliamentary committees and interparliamentary delegations maintain relations with other parliaments and organizations. The General Secretariat, led by the Secretary-General, supports the EP’s work. The EP’s powers are legislative (co-decision with the Council), budgetary (adopting the annual budget), and executive control (scrutinizing EU institutions). It can censure the Commission, though never exercised. Control involves examining reports and questioning the Commission.

Electoral Population Sizes and Ratios in Europe 1999

Source: I. Delgado, 1999.

Voter Turnout in European Elections (1979-1999)

Source: I. Delgado, 1999

Distribution of Seats in the European Parliament After the 1999 Elections

Members of the European Commission (1999-2004)

President: Romano Prodi (Italy)

Vice President for Administrative Reform: Neil Kinnock (UK)

Vice President of Relations with Parliament, Transport and Energy: Loyola de Palacio (Spain)

Competition Commissioner: Mario Monti (Italy)

Commissioner of Agriculture and Fishing: Franz Fischler (Austria)

Commissioner for Enterprise and Information Society: Erkki Liikanen (Finland)

Internal Market Commissioner: Frits Bolkestein (Netherlands)

Research Commissioner: Philippe Busquin (Belgium)

Commissioner for Economic and Monetary Affairs: Pedro Solbes (Spain)

Commissioner for Development and Humanitarian Aid: Poul Nielson (Denmark)

Commissioner for Enlargement: Günter Verheugen (Germany)

External Relations Commissioner: Christopher Patten (Great Britain)

Trade Commissioner: Pascal Lamy (France)

Commissioner for Health and Consumer Protection: David Byrne (Ireland)

Regional Policy Commissioner: Michel Barnier (France)

Education and Culture Commissioner: Viviane Reding (Luxembourg)

Commissioner for Budget: Michaele Schreyer (Germany)

Environment Commissioner: Margot Wallström (Sweden)

Commissioner for Justice and Home Affairs: António Vitorino (Portugal)

Commissioner of Employment and Social Affairs: Anna Diamantopoulou (Greece)

Parliamentary Committees

• Committee on Foreign Affairs, Human Rights, Common Security and Defence Policy
• Committee on Budgets
• Committee on Budgetary Control
• Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs
• Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs
• Committee on Legal Affairs and the Internal Market
• Committee on Industry, Research and Energy
• Committee on Employment and Social Affairs
• Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety
• Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development
• Committee on Fisheries
• Committee on Regional Development
• Committee on Transport and Tourism
• Committee on Culture and Education
• Committee on Development
• Committee on Constitutional Affairs
• Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality
• Committee on Petitions

2.5. The Court of Justice

The Court of Justice (ECJ), established in 1952 and located in Luxembourg, safeguards member states’ and citizens’ interests. Composed of fifteen judges (appointed by governments for six-year terms) and nine Advocates General (five permanent, four rotating), it ensures uniform interpretation of EU law. Increased caseloads led to its division into six chambers (3-5 judges each), with the Plenum addressing matters raised by member states or institutions. The ECJ’s jurisdiction includes: actions for failure to fulfill obligations (monitoring member states’ compliance), actions for annulment (reviewing EU acts’ legality), actions for failure to act (addressing institutions’ inaction), actions for damages (for damages caused by EU institutions), and appeals (on points of law against Court of First Instance decisions). The ECJ upholds EU law, with member states’ courts also responsible for its implementation.