The Evolution of the State: From Absolutism to Social Democracy
Hobbes vs. Rousseau: The Nature of Man and Society
Thomas Hobbes believed that “man is a wolf to man.” He argued that human beings are inherently self-centered and live in a chaotic state of constant struggle. Reason, according to Hobbes, compels individuals to form an agreement, establishing a strong authority to maintain order. Only a powerful leader, chosen freely by all and capable of enforcing laws, can create a peaceful society.
In contrast, Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed in the inherent goodness of “natural man alone.” He posited that life in society can be positive for human development if structured as an egalitarian and small community. However, the emergence of private property and selfishness disrupts peaceful coexistence, corrupting individuals. Rousseau proposed a just society based on a collective agreement oriented towards the common good, guided by the “general will.”
The Liberal State as Rule of Law
The first form of the modern state was the absolutist monarchy of the Ancien Régime, where the king represented the sovereign will, and his word was law. For example, Louis XVI. However, liberal revolutions from the 17th century onward ushered in a new mentality, giving rise to the concept of the rule of law. Under this system, the monarch is not above the law and can be held accountable.
Montesquieu advocated for the separation of powers into executive, legislative, and judicial branches. In the liberal tradition, equal rights for all guarantee freedom, allowing individuals to act without fear of unfair interference, such as from the state.
Three principles form the basis of the legal system in a modern state, adopted by all European societies:
- Principle of freedom of each member of society (as a human being).
- Principle of the dependence of all on a single common legislation (as subjects).
- Principle of equality of all subjects (as citizens).
To preserve these principles, Immanuel Kant argued that the sovereign, in enacting laws, should consider the following: “What the people cannot decide on itself and its components cannot be decided by the sovereign over the people.” This principle marked the end of the paternalism of the old regime.
The Liberal Tradition: Protecting Freedom and Individual Rights
The liberal state, within the liberal tradition, aims to protect freedom and individual rights. Liberalism views the individual as the core of political action. Individuals can pursue their interests according to the rules of economic competition and free trade without being constrained by public power. Politics is seen not as the pursuit of the common good but as the art of balancing different interests.
The core functions of the liberal state are:
- Protect the lives of its members.
- Maintain security.
- Reduce fear and uncertainty.
- Create civil peace.
- Ensure the right of property.
- Facilitate trade.
Republican Inheritance: The Liberal State as a Democratic State
A constitution serves as the ultimate legal reference, providing legitimacy to a state. Liberalism believes that to achieve its objectives, the state must be constitutional, with a fundamental set of rules (the Constitution) that limits state powers and prevents abuses by rulers. An example is the separation of powers advocated by Montesquieu, which seeks independence and control among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
The liberal state of law evolved into the liberal and democratic state of law when it was recognized that universal suffrage was the most appropriate mechanism to control public power and achieve its goals. Liberalism, a form of controlling political power, should not be confused with democracy, which refers to those who exercise this power. An example of a modern liberal state is the United States.
Political and Economic Liberalism
Liberalism emerged as a defense of freedom against absolutism and soon evolved into a doctrine of economic organization. Today, the term “economic liberalism” has a different meaning than its original one.
- Political liberalism emphasizes that individuals should be free to follow their preferences in religious, economic, and political matters, thus limiting and controlling state power. It upholds individual rights that the state cannot infringe upon.
- Economic liberalism views the market as a mechanism for social coordination. The state’s role is to allow the market to determine costs, prices, and distribute benefits without interference. The state should not intervene in the market under any circumstances.
However, the market alone can generate social injustices, such as a loaf of bread costing fifty euros. This issue led to the need for a social state.
Scientific Socialism or Communism
Primarily developed by Lenin, it views the liberal state as a tool of the ruling class. The objectives of communism are:
- Abolition of the market and socialization of the means of production.
- Abolition of private property and, consequently, social-class differences.
- Revolutionary destruction of the state.
Reformist Socialism or Social Democracy
It proposes state intervention without breaking its democratic and liberal foundations. The objectives of social democracy are:
- Subordination of the market to social needs.
- Control and intervention in the economy by restricting private property.
- Social distribution of political power by strengthening the democratic state.