The Evolution of Western Philosophical Thought on Human Nature

Posted on Nov 16, 2024 in Philosophy and ethics

1. The Greeks: The Rational Animal

Greek myths served not only as explanations of the world but also presented an ideal model for human behavior. The anthropomorphic gods and heroes provided examples to be followed, particularly by the aristocracy, who were seen as the exemplary human model. Men were expected to imitate the gods, including their virtues. However, individual freedom was limited by the perceived capricious will of the gods.

1.2 Greek Philosophy and the Rise of Humanism

With the emergence of democracy, reason began to challenge the dominance of myth. Philosophical reflection on human nature arose, considering humans as part of the natural world, yet distinct and superior due to their rationality. This rationality allowed humans to understand their surroundings, their own nature, and their relationships within society. Crucially, it granted them the capacity to choose how to live and what values should govern the polis.

Key Figures in Greek Philosophy:

  • Protagoras: Believed human nature was characterized by aggression, but also by the capacity for culture, justice, and social coexistence.
  • Radical Sophists (Callicles, Thrasymachus): Denied the rationality of human nature, asserting that humans are governed by instincts and the law of the strongest. They believed that by nature, some humans are rulers and others are naturally destined to be ruled.
  • Socrates: Defined the essence of humanity as the soul, the source of reason and intelligence, responsible for both thought and moral action. He prioritized the soul over the body, viewing the latter as merely an instrument.
The Mind-Body Problem:

The relationship between body and mind became a central question. Anthropological monism, particularly the materialistic view, explained human actions solely through physical reality. However, a dualistic approach, championed by Plato, gained prominence.

  • Plato’s Dualism:
    1. Humans are composed of body and soul, with the soul having absolute priority.
    2. The body is a vessel for the soul, burdened by passions and instincts that lead to error.
    3. The soul is immortal and eternal. Its union with the body is temporary. True knowledge, attained through reason, is independent of the physical senses.

Balance and fairness are achieved when the rational part of the soul governs the will and instincts.

1.3 The Hellenistic Period

The Hellenistic period marked a shift in Greek civilization following Alexander the Great’s conquests. This era saw a decline in political engagement and a focus on individual happiness and inner freedom, as advocated by Epicurus and the Stoics. The individual, previously seen as a social being, became the focus, leading to a tension between public and private life.

2. The Christian Vision of Humanity

Christianity introduced three fundamental ideas:

  1. Humans Created in God’s Image: Humans are central to creation but must live according to God’s laws. Human existence is contingent and finite, dependent on God’s goodness.
  2. The Immortal Soul: The soul is the link to God, the spiritual part that grants access to resurrection. The body, susceptible to sin, is secondary to the soul.
  3. Resurrection and Linear Time: Christianity rejects the cyclical view of reincarnation, proposing a linear model of life culminating in resurrection. This gives significant importance to earthly actions.

Christian Morality:

  1. Morality derives from God’s laws, not human reason. Sin results from malice, not ignorance.
  2. Human Freedom: Humans have the free will to choose between good and evil, and are responsible for their salvation.

St. Thomas Aquinas adopted the Aristotelian definition of humans as rational animals, capable of understanding their nature and establishing appropriate conduct, such as preserving life, educating children, seeking truth, and upholding justice.

3. Humanism and the Renaissance

The Renaissance witnessed a desire for societal and individual renewal, leading to humanism, which championed freedom of thought and expression. Humanist thought was anthropocentric, focusing on human potential and liberation from ignorance. Education and personal development were emphasized.

  • Anthropocentric Principles:
    1. Humans are the center of the universe.
    2. Humans are free and should strive for dignity.
    3. Humans are responsible for their own actions and destiny.

Renaissance political thought also reflected this anthropocentrism, with two opposing views emerging:

  • Realism (Machiavelli): Humans are naturally inclined towards evil, but are also capable of controlling their destiny and circumstances.
  • Utopianism (Thomas More, Francis Bacon): Advocated for an ideal, egalitarian society that respects individual freedoms, particularly religious freedom, in contrast to the realist perspective.