The Fall of the Spanish Empire and the Rise of Dictatorship
The War at Sea (1898)
In 1898, Spain’s overseas possessions, excluding African enclaves, comprised Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, the Marianas, and the Carolinas. Spanish presence was significant only in the Caribbean islands and the Philippine capital. Cuba, once deeply loyal to the Spanish crown, erupted in riots, most notably the Ten Years’ War (1868-1878), culminating in the Pact of Zanjón. Spain’s critical error was failing to honor promises made to the rebels, granting concessions too late.
Three key factors contributed to the conflict: the growing power of the United States, which coveted the colonies for their economic and strategic value; Spain’s radically protectionist policies imposed on the colonies, hindering U.S. trade; and the emergence of the Cuban Revolutionary Party (PRC) led by José Martí.
Following the Pact of Zanjón, a second, short-lived revolt, the Little War, erupted in Cuba. The final war began in 1895 with the Cry of Baire, a powerful uprising against Spanish rule, particularly strong in the east. Prime Minister Cánovas del Castillo dispatched Martínez Campos, a skilled soldier and negotiator, to quell the rebellion. Recognizing the futility of the mission due to Spain’s broken promises, Cánovas replaced Martínez Campos with General Valeriano Weyler, known for his harsh tactics. Weyler’s brutal concentration camp policy outraged the U.S., further straining relations with Spain.
Following Cánovas’ assassination in 1897, the Liberal Party assumed power, replacing Weyler with General Blanco and granting autonomy to Cuba. A similar revolt in the Philippines was swiftly suppressed.
Tensions between the U.S. and Spain escalated with the sinking of the USS Maine in Havana harbor. The U.S. declared war, met with patriotic fervor in Spain. Despite outnumbering U.S. forces, Spain lacked the technology and strategic positioning of its adversary. Naval battles proved decisive. The two-month war saw two major defeats for Spain: the Battle of Manila Bay, where Admiral Montojo’s fleet was decimated, and the Battle of Santiago de Cuba, where Admiral Cervera’s fleet met a similar fate, largely due to the superior range of American cannons.
The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1899, granted independence to Cuba and ceded Puerto Rico and the Philippines to the U.S. Cuba became an independent republic, albeit subject to U.S. intervention. Spain sold the economically insignificant Carolinas and Marianas to a rising Germany.
The Crisis of ’98
The Crisis of ’98, while not economically devastating, had profound moral implications for Spain. It spurred a generation of writers known as the Generation of ’98, gave rise to the Regeneracionismo movement advocating for national renewal, and fueled a crisis of militarism, leading the army to seek greater political power. The Queen Regent’s shift from Liberal to Conservative leadership resulted in tax increases and ministerial instability.
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera
General Primo de Rivera’s coup on September 13, 1923, marked the beginning of his dictatorship. Supported by King Alfonso XIII, Primo de Rivera served as Prime Minister and later self-proclaimed dictator. His rule comprised two periods: the Military Directory (1923-1925), ruled by a military junta, and the Civil Directory (1925-1930), an attempt to normalize the regime.
Several factors led to the coup: the decline of the established political system, upper-class fears of social revolution, the disastrous situation in Morocco, anxieties about republicanism and nationalism, failed attempts at democratic reform, and the Picasso Report implicating the King in the Annual disaster.
Primo de Rivera’s greatest achievement was the 1925 joint Franco-Spanish landing in Morocco, which led to the capture of rebel leader Abd el-Krim. Despite promises to end corruption and cronyism, Primo de Rivera replaced existing officials with those loyal to his regime.
Ruling by decree after annulling the constitution, Primo de Rivera attempted to institutionalize his power by creating new institutions modeled on Italy’s fascist system. He drafted a constitution, which was never approved, and established the Patriotic Union, a single political party. He also created a National Assembly with limited advisory powers.
Economic Policy
Primo de Rivera’s economic policy, overseen by Finance Minister Calvo Sotelo, focused on public works projects such as dams, railways, and highways. These projects aimed to improve infrastructure, promote the regime, and reduce unemployment. Nationalization of key sectors and the creation of monopolies like CAMPSA allowed for the placement of regime loyalists in influential positions. This policy, funded by state money, led to increased deficits and public debt, leaving Spain bankrupt by the end of the dictatorship, despite Calvo Sotelo’s manipulated figures.
Social Policy
While tolerant of socialist unions, the dictatorship repressed the CNT and anarchism. The creation of vertical unions, grouping employers and workers by sector, aimed to control labor and suppress dissent.
Opposition to the Dictatorship
Opposition to Primo de Rivera arose from four main fronts: the military, intellectuals and students, Catalan nationalists, and the labor movement. Military conspiracies, intellectual protests against censorship, Catalan resistance to cultural suppression, and labor strikes and terrorist acts challenged the regime.
The Fall of Primo de Rivera
Facing dwindling support, Primo de Rivera resigned in January 1930. King Alfonso XIII appointed General Berenguer as Prime Minister to oversee a return to normalcy and convene elections. Berenguer’s”soft dictatorshi” failed to appease the growing republican sentiment. Following a failed coup attempt in Jaca, the Pact of San Sebastián united republican forces against the monarchy. Admiral Aznar replaced Berenguer and called for municipal elections, which were interpreted as a referendum on the monarchy. Republican victories in major cities led to the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic on April 14, 1931. King Alfonso XIII went into exile.