The Fall of Tsarism and the Russian Revolution
Political Immobilism and Modernization
Russia, the most backward country in Europe at the time, had a political system based on the Tsar’s absolute power. This regime rested on three pillars: 1. The nobility, who controlled land ownership; 2. The senior administration and the Orthodox Church; and 3. The Tsar, who headed the system. During Alexander II’s reign, reforms were attempted in the economy and administration, but without challenging the Tsar’s authority or the nobility’s privileges. One key measure was abolishing serfdom. Economic modernization, with industrialization limited to certain areas and significant foreign capital presence, led to social changes.
Opposition to Tsarism
Opposition to Tsarism demanded political freedom and socio-economic changes. In the 1870s, the Populists emerged, seeking revolutionary consciousness and agrarian socialism. However, Populism ultimately failed. In 1898, the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP), inspired by Marxist principles, was founded. Lenin rose to prominence, and the party split into Mensheviks, who believed Russia needed a bourgeois revolution, and Bolsheviks, who aimed to overthrow Tsarism and establish a democratic dictatorship. In 1905, the Constitutional Democratic Party formed, seeking to transform the Tsarist regime into a constitutional one respecting individual rights.
The 1905 Revolution
Peasant discontent, deteriorating living conditions, and Russia’s defeat in the Russo-Japanese War discredited the Tsar. A peaceful demonstration in 1905 ended tragically (Bloody Sunday). Peasants demanded an end to landlord abuses, workers formed strike committees and Soviets, and illegal political parties actively opposed the war. The Potemkin mutiny further fueled unrest. In October, the Tsar announced liberal measures: civil liberties and a representative system.
The Kornilov Coup
In August 1917, General Kornilov, the army commander, rebelled, aiming to establish a military dictatorship. Kerensky, the head of the provisional government, sought help from the Bolsheviks and Petrograd Soviets, who convinced Kornilov’s troops to abandon the coup.
Failure of Reforms
The 1905 revolution raised hopes for reforms. People desired a liberal democratic regime, agrarian reform, and improved working conditions. However, reforms were limited, and the Tsar’s power remained largely intact. The Duma’s legislative power was restricted by the Tsar’s veto. Four Dumas were formed, but the authoritarian Tsar frustrated hopes for change. Land reform was unsuccessful, with the Church and nobility retaining vast landholdings. Political repression returned, and government crises worsened with the outbreak of World War I in 1914.
The February Revolution and the Fall of Tsarism
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