The Fall of Tsarist Russia and the Rise of Stalin
1. The Fall of Tsarist Russia (1905-February 1917)
Tsarist Order
In 20th century Russia, an absolute monarchy prevailed. The Tsar held supreme state power and exercised it without limits, relying on the nobility, the Orthodox Church, the army, and the bureaucracy. A parliament (Duma) existed, but its powers were severely limited. The Tsar could convene or dissolve the Duma at will. There were no political freedoms, and opponents were persecuted. The economy was primarily agricultural, though industrialization had begun. The installation of some heavy industries and railway construction swelled the working population, but not the entrepreneurial bourgeoisie. Industrial development depended on foreign capital and the initiative of the state.
Various political forces opposed Tsarism, representing different social and political groups: the bourgeois parties, peasant parties (like the Social Revolutionaries led by Kerensky), and revolutionary workers’ parties divided into two groups: the Mensheviks (moderate) and the Bolsheviks (radical, led by Lenin).
The Revolution of 1905
The Tsarist army was defeated in a war against Japan, hindering Russia’s expansion in Asia. This defeat, coupled with the economic crisis, caused widespread discontent and riots. The revolution of 1905 began on January 9th, when masses marched to the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg to petition the Tsar. Protesters denounced the government’s mismanagement and demanded political reforms. The authorities responded with repression, resulting in numerous deaths and injuries. This day is known as “Bloody Sunday.”
Peasants and workers organized into Soviets (councils or popular assemblies), establishing an organizational model that would be crucial in the future. The Tsar made concessions, outlined in the Imperial Manifesto issued in October 1905. The main concession was the election of a Duma by universal suffrage, transforming Russia into a parliamentary monarchy. However, the Tsar broke his commitments and ruled without the Duma.
The February 1917 Revolution
In 1914, Russia entered World War I, but neither its economy nor its military was prepared. War losses and shortages on the home front created unrest, leading to strikes that were harshly repressed. This repression fueled opposition against the Tsar. The revolution began after a demonstration on February 23rd in St. Petersburg, demanding “peace and bread.” On the 25th, a general strike broke out, and on the 26th, riots occurred in the barracks, with troops firing on strikers. On February 27th, a provisional government led by Kerensky was formed. Kerensky aimed to establish a liberal political system, and the Tsar was forced to abdicate.
However, the provisional government lacked authority throughout the country. Workers, peasants, and soldiers formed Soviets across the nation, establishing armed militias (Red Guards). The Soviets leaned towards the Bolsheviks, who demanded an end to the war, improved living conditions for workers, land redistribution, and recognition of national minorities.
4. The Rise of Stalin
Lenin died in 1924, and the leadership of the party and state fell to a group of leaders (Stalin, Trotsky, Kamenev, Zinoviev). However, continuous struggles arose among them due to differing viewpoints. Stalin advocated abandoning the idea of a global revolution in favor of “socialism in one country,” focusing all efforts on consolidating the revolution within the USSR.
Stalin Implements a Totalitarian Dictatorship
By 1929, Stalin had seized all power. To maintain this control, he employed three primary means:
- The Cult of Personality: Propaganda extolled Stalin’s image as a great benefactor and father of the people, while erasing any positive portrayal of his enemies.
- Strengthening of the Communist Party’s Power: Participation in politics through the Soviets required membership in the Communist Party. This ensured the party’s dominance.
- Terror: The NKVD, a secret police force, was used to silence any opposition. This terror also involved a segment of the population.
The most intense purges occurred between 1933 and 1939, including the Moscow Trials, where party leaders were condemned. Thousands were sent to concentration camps (gulags) in Siberia, enduring inhumane conditions. Stalin gained absolute control over culture and art. The Communist Party determined that art should serve communist ideals, and from 1932, artists were persecuted and accused of being counter-revolutionaries and bourgeois. Only one artistic trend was recognized: Socialist Realism, which had a traditional style and thematic content.
5. A Planned Economy
From 1927, Stalin promoted the idea of a state-planned economy. The Gosplan, a state agency, was responsible for designing and implementing these plans. Each plan lasted five years (Five-Year Plans) and outlined economic goals, the resources needed to achieve them, and the methods for doing so.
Collectivization of Agriculture
Kolkhozes: Large farms operating under a cooperative regime.
Sovkhozes: State farms employing hired labor.
Both types emphasized mechanization and the application of advanced agricultural techniques.