The First Carlist War and the Rise of Liberalism in Spain
The First Carlist War: Two Choices
The First Carlist War (1833-1840) arose from a succession crisis in Spain. Upon the death of King Ferdinand VII, his daughter Isabella was proclaimed queen. However, Ferdinand’s brother, Infante Carlos, Count of Molina, challenged Isabella’s claim, asserting his right to the throne based on Salic Law, which excluded female succession. This dispute ignited a civil war between supporters of the traditionalist, absolutist regime (Carlists) and those who favored a more liberal, constitutional monarchy (Isabelline).
The Carlists: Defenders of Tradition
The Carlists represented a traditionalist ideology, advocating for absolute monarchy, the Catholic Church, and regional autonomy. Their motto was “God, Homeland, and King.” They drew support from the clergy, rural gentry, and parts of the Basque Country, Navarre, Catalonia, Aragon, and Valencia.
The Isabelline: Embracing Liberalism
The Isabelline faction consisted of much of the high nobility, government officials, and a segment of the Church hierarchy. They were compelled to seek the support of liberals and accept their demands for an end to absolutism and the traditional regime. They advocated for a constitutional monarchy with a more limited role for the king and greater individual freedoms.
The Development of the Armed Conflict
Initially, the Carlists lacked a regular army and relied on guerrilla warfare. After Ferdinand VII’s death, the first Carlist uprisings occurred in Navarre, the Basque Country, the Catalan Pyrenees, and northern Castellón and Lower Aragon.
The war can be divided into two stages:
- 1833-1835: The Carlists strengthened their position in the north, achieving several military victories. In 1834, Carlos established a court and government in Navarre. However, the death of General Zumalacárregui, their most skilled strategist, was a significant blow.
- 1836-1840: The tide turned in favor of the Liberals. The Carlists launched expeditions into other areas, including the Royal Expedition of 1837. By 1838, the Liberals were retaking cities in the northeast, and the Carlist cause weakened. Internal divisions emerged, leading to the Convention of Vergara in 1839, which effectively ended the war.
The Governments of Transition
Ferdinand VII’s will established a Governing Council to advise Regent Maria Cristina. Initially, the council was dominated by moderates with absolutist leanings. However, the Carlist uprising forced the Isabelline side to embrace liberal reforms to gain support. Francisco Martínez de la Rosa, a moderate liberal, introduced limited reforms, including a Royal Statute that adapted the traditional Cortes (parliament) to modern times.
Liberals to Power
Popular revolts against perceived Carlist sympathizers, particularly in Catalonia, strengthened the position of progressive liberals. In 1835, Maria Cristina appointed Juan Álvarez Mendizábal, a progressive liberal, to form a government. He initiated reforms, including a Royal Statute reform and the sale of Church lands (desamortización) to finance the war effort. Popular unrest led to the restoration of the 1812 Constitution in 1836.
The Dismantling of the Old Regime
From 1836 to 1837, the progressives dismantled institutions of the old regime and implemented a liberal system. Key reforms included:
- Dissolution of the manorial system: Lords lost jurisdictional powers, though they retained ownership of some lands.
- Disentailment: Ending the practice of entailing property, allowing for its free sale.
- Confiscation: Dissolving religious orders (except those involved in education or healthcare) and selling their assets to raise funds.
These reforms aimed to establish a free market economy, promote individual property rights, and reduce the state’s debt.
The Constitution of 1837
The progressive government convened a Cortes to draft a new constitution. It was a brief document, incorporating both moderate and progressive elements. It established a bicameral legislature (Congress and Senate), with the Senate appointed by the king. It also guaranteed funding for the Catholic Church. Subsequent laws established freedom of the press (with some restrictions) and a limited suffrage based on property ownership.
Alternating in Power: Moderates and Progressives
A two-party system emerged, with the Moderate Party and the Progressive Party alternating in power during Isabella II’s reign. Figures like Espartero, Narváez, and O’Donnell played key roles in the governments of this period.
The Moderate Decade (1844-1854)
The 1844 elections, held under a restricted suffrage, gave the moderates a majority. Ramón María Narváez formed a government aimed at consolidating liberal institutions and creating a stable order. The 1845 Constitution enshrined moderate principles: shared sovereignty between the king and Cortes, expanded executive powers, restricted suffrage, and a non-elective Senate. It also recognized Catholicism as the state religion.
The Crisis of the Moderate Government
The authoritarianism of the moderate regime, along with economic difficulties and Carlist uprisings (including the Second Carlist War in Catalonia), led to growing discontent. Bravo Murillo’s proposed constitutional amendments, which would have further restricted freedoms, faced opposition even within the moderate camp.
The Revolt of 1854 and the Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)
In 1854, progressives, democrats, and some moderate sectors, led by Leopoldo O’Donnell (who founded the Liberal Union party), revolted against the government. The Manifesto of Manzanares called for adherence to the constitution, electoral reform, tax reductions, and the restoration of the National Militia. Espartero returned to power, and the new government implemented progressive reforms, including resuming the sale of Church lands and enacting a railway law.
The Crisis of the Biennium and the Unionist Governments (1856-1863)
The progressive reforms did not solve the economic crisis, and worker unrest grew. Disagreements within the governing coalition led to Espartero’s resignation. O’Donnell formed a Unionist government that sought a balance between moderate and progressive policies. This period saw relative stability and economic growth, fueled by railway speculation. O’Donnell’s government also pursued an active foreign policy, intervening in Indochina, Mexico, and Morocco.
Return of the Moderates and the End of Isabella’s Reign (1863-1868)
Narváez returned to power in 1863, marking a return to moderate principles. However, his government faced internal divisions and growing opposition. The authoritarian tendencies of the regime and economic hardships fueled discontent. In 1866, the sergeants’ uprising at the San Gil barracks, supported by progressives and democrats, highlighted the regime’s weakness. The situation deteriorated further, leading to a broad coalition that sought to overthrow Isabella II. In 1868, the Glorious Revolution ended her reign, ushering in a new period of Spanish history.
Alternative Options to Liberalism: Political Organizations
During this period, various political organizations emerged, often centered around prominent figures. These included:
- Moderates: A diverse group of landowners, merchants, intellectuals, remnants of the old nobility, high clergy, and military leaders. They defended property rights, restricted suffrage, and shared sovereignty between the Crown and Cortes. They favored limiting individual rights, particularly freedom of the press, assembly, and association.
- Progressives: Advocates of individual freedoms and national sovereignty. They supported a dominant legislature, strong local authorities, and broad individual and collective rights. They maintained a census suffrage (based on property ownership).
- Democrats and Republicans: The Democratic Party, formed in 1849, advocated for popular sovereignty, universal male suffrage, a unicameral legislature, and expanded individual and collective rights. Republicans favored a republic as the only truly democratic system, allowing for the election of all public officials, including the head of state.
The First Carlist War and the subsequent decades were a period of profound transformation in Spain. The struggle between traditionalism and liberalism shaped the country’s political and social landscape, leading to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy, the dismantling of the old regime, and the emergence of a modern state, albeit one marked by instability and recurring crises.