The First Spanish Republic: A Tumultuous Period
IV. The First Spanish Republic
1. Weaknesses of the New Regime
The new Republic had two forms of understanding the country: the unitary and centralized state, and the federal and decentralized state. The period covered less than a year when the coup d’état of Pavia overthrew the Republican State. The first Republican president was Estanislao Figueras (February 24th), with whom the Constitution of 1869 remained in place, removing elements related to the monarchy.
2. The Federal Republic
With the victory of the federal Republicans, discrepancies arose between them. The compromisers, led by Pi i Margall, were primarily concerned with achieving social order to build a Federal Republic. The intransigents, however, saw construction beginning from the federation to achieve social order. Both groups presented their projects to the courts, but the hardliners were replaced and Figueras rejected Pi i Margall. The hardliners originated revolutions that disrupted plans, such as the cantonal revolutions, which led to Pi i Margall being replaced by Nicolas Salmerón.
a) The Cantonalism
It arose from two causes: as a defensive reaction to the possible rightward shift of the republic and to accelerate the deployment of the Federal Republic. It started in Cartagena, a movement followed by other cantons. Its repression fell to Salmerón in Andalusia and Valencia.
3. The Unitary Republic
On September 6th, Salmerón left the presidency by refusing to sign two death sentences of soldiers and resigned before meeting this demand. He was replaced by Emilio Castelar (who did not participate in the drafting of the Constitution), who advocated for a Central Republic, signed the death sentences that Salmerón rejected, and brought leaders of the radical and constitutional parties, among them Serrano. In parliamentary sessions, he was held accountable, but lacking confidence, he resigned from the parliament on January 3rd, 1874. General Pavia surrounded the Congress with the army and the Civil Guard, and the Republic ended.
4. The Government of Serrano
The first decision of the new government was to bring Serrano to power. Pavia, Concha, Zavala, and a group of politicians imposed a republic with Serrano as president, whose government was known as a disguised dictatorship under the republic, where the army played an important role.
5. Towards the Return of the Bourbons
The governments of 1874 acted with the idea of returning to normalcy. However, the canton of Cartagena still existed, along with the Carlist wars and Cuban preparations. This facilitated the return of the son of Elizabeth II, General Alfonso, whom Martínez Campos proclaimed the new king of Spain, forcing Serrano to flee to France.
6. The Cuban War
Besides the Carlist war, the Sexenio had to deal with the Cuban war, which was linked to the U.S. economy and admired its democracy. The economic development and U.S. interest in Cuba rose to the point of wanting to buy it. The Cuban war was led by Carlos Manuel Cespedes, who gave the Cry of Yara. The Spanish government took the pro-independence uprisings seriously, although at first, they requested annexation to the U.S. However, Máximo Gómez and Modesto took the fight for independence. The hardest phase of the war was fought from the Restoration to the signing of the Peace of Zanjón in 1878. Behind the conflict was also the abolition of slavery, which was achieved in Puerto Rico, but in Cuba, it could not be done without slaves because they had enriched many slave traders. Pressures from France, the UK, and the U.S. forced the interim government to approve the Moret Law, which declared free the children born to slave mothers, minors, and those over a certain age by 1886. Slavery persisted until then, and U.S. interference led to Cuban nationalism.
V. Economic Transformations
1. Agriculture
This was the sector that employed the most people. The following percentage changes occurred:
Land Ownership by the Nobility
The way of owning land changed. The owners were the holders, and the peasants had some rights over the land. The owner could not sell the land freely. This was achieved through:
- The abolition of domains: Lords were able to sell their land, and the nobility no longer exercised power over the workers, who became free.
- The abolition of entails: Only the noble houses inherited the property, and the most children could not sell it. This law allowed the sale of many lands.
Land Ownership by the Church
The church’s land was disentailed, putting it on the market. However, the land was not redistributed to poor peasants.
Evolution of Agriculture in the 19th Century
The 19th century was characterized by agricultural backwardness. Another change was the reduction of livestock. The Mesta disappeared, and cotton replaced wool, which led to the ruin of livestock, especially sheep. There were subsistence crises. There was also an increase in surplus exports, where the demand was low, which caused stagnation. This was mostly due to a great lack of peasant technology.
2. Industry
The Spanish industry was characterized by stagnation in relation to other European countries due to its mountainous geography, shortage of raw materials, and lack of capital. Only in Catalonia and the North was there investment in industry, while other territories depended on foreign capital.
Situation in the Middle Decades of the 19th Century
- The textile industry: It was concentrated in Barcelona, where the new cotton boom introduced machinery. Mechanization was driven by cheaper machines and hand labor.
- The steel industry: It was characterized by weakness due to factors such as industrialization, coal to feed the furnaces, which was expensive, and low-quality iron, resulting in expensive steel.
- Mining: Spain possessed large quantities of deposits that were exploited by foreign capital due to the progressive loans and investments they requested in return.
Situation in the Last Third of the 19th Century
- Basque industry: It imposed itself on others, increasing its capital with its quality. The construction of the railway demanded the replacement of iron by steel. It was closely linked to the shipbuilding and metallurgical industries.
- The textile industry: The Catalan industry improved, developing and increasing transport, demand, and communications.
It is also important to mention that electrical energy was mainly concentrated in Barcelona and Madrid, but it soon spread throughout the country.
3. The Railway
It was the means of transport that revolutionized the mid-19th century. The Railway Law was passed in 1855, which facilitated the creation of limited companies. Many were established with foreign capital, which benefited greatly. However, it entered into crisis in 1866 due to the few passengers and goods, which paralyzed its construction for 10 years. After the Restoration, companies like MZA and North of Spain were included. Its construction facilitated trade, the exchange of goods, and the movement of people.
Maritime transport also stood out, but the replacement of sailing ships by steam ships was significant. The most important ports were Barcelona and Bilbao.
The construction of roads was also significant.
4. From Estates to Classes
With the death of Ferdinand VII, society began to replace estates with classes. Now, individuals were equal and could aspire to happiness based on their merits.
- Gentry: They took advantage of the Crown’s distress, arranging marriages with noble titles. This included Narvaez, O’Donnell, Serrano, etc.
- The aristocracy: The nobility was associated with the bourgeoisie, although its power remained intact and it kept the village representative.
- The church: Secularization helped it to cease being an estate and become dependent on the State, dedicated solely to the spiritual.
- The Army: They were free and were called upon to maintain social order, which led them to become politicians and participate in government. Narvaez, Espartero, Serrano, and Prim stood out.
- The middle classes: The affluent middle classes sent their children to universities. They had inherited or had risked their wealth in the industrial situation. They wanted to convey to society that they were able to access wealth and develop political positions. They owned small and medium businesses.
- The lower classes: Two groups were characterized: the rural and the urban. The rural were rooted in their traditions and unwilling to innovate. The urban lived in the cities.