The Five Canons of Rhetoric: A Comprehensive Guide
Elocutio
The First Phase in Verba
Elocutio, the first phase in verba, focuses on translating the ideas generated in inventio and organized in dispositio into language. As Lausberg suggests, this stage involves providing the speech with a “linguistic garb.” It’s the most crucial phase in verba as it shapes the final form of the speech.
Elocutio encompasses both practical and theoretical aspects:
- Practical: The communicator gives a definite verbal structure to the ideas discovered and arranged in previous phases – the WHAT.
- Theoretical: This involves selecting strategic and communicative tools for maximum persuasive effect – the HOW.
To execute elocutio effectively, the speaker must adhere to two normative rules: grammatical and rhetorical.
- Grammatical: Ensures clarity and idiomatic correctness of the message.
- Rhetorical: Utilizes rhetorical devices to enhance persuasive effectiveness.
The Importance of Linguistic Formulation
This phase encompasses not only lexical and syntactical aspects but also elements related to style. The ultimate goal of elocutio is to achieve a balance between persuasive efficiency and expressive elegance.
As Kurt Spang emphasizes, the linguistic formulation is the foundation of the speech’s message. The degree of perfection in this formulation is crucial for capturing the audience’s attention.
The speaker must find a balance between clarity and persuasive force (imposed by the content and function) and aesthetic appeal. Like other components of speech structure, the ultimate goal is aptum: the criteria that ensure effective and high-quality rhetorical communication.
To understand how to achieve this balance, we delve into ornatus, an essential part of discourse within elocutio.
Ornatus: Shaping the Verbal Form
Ornatus is not merely decorative additions to a finished text; it’s the skillful shaping of ideas and arguments gathered and arranged in the previous two phases. As a verbal formulation, it combines grammatical and rhetorical aspects.
To ensure the speech’s effectiveness, the communicator must possess these skills:
- Puritas: Mastery of language and grammar.
- Perspicuitas: Ability to express ideas with clarity and conciseness.
- Capabilities to design and build texts.
- Knowledge of technical and rhetorical devices.
Rhetorical Resources: Two Approaches
Understanding rhetorical resources is crucial for implementing ornatus. These resources offer diverse persuasive possibilities and are essential tools for any communication aiming to influence thought or behavior.
J. Knape defines rhetorical resources, such as figures and tropes, as “certain configuration phenomena in the surface or deep structure of texts, not grammatically motivated.” Their use in speech stems from rhetorical, not grammatical, considerations.
Rhetorical communication aims for maximum persuasive effectiveness, achieved through a beautiful, original, and innovative speech. Two approaches to the theory of figuration exist:
- Logical-Structural: Defines and classifies figures based on their structural nature. Quintilian’s Quadripartita ratio outlines four ways to achieve this:
- Adiectio: Addition of a sound or word.
- Detractio: Omission of one or more sounds from the beginning of a word (e.g., Because-Cause).
- Transmutatio: Rearrangement of letters within a word (e.g., Metathesis, “You’re a crazy driver”).
- Imitatio: Wordplay suggesting two or more meanings (e.g., Paronomasia).
- Functional and Pragmatic: Focuses on the operational aspects and the effects on the audience. This approach considers functions like expressiveness, appeal, and audience involvement, respecting the communicative and persuasive potential of rhetorical devices.
In essence, figures of speech reflect a deliberate innovation (logical-structural) with a clear persuasive and aesthetic purpose (functional and pragmatic), revealing the speaker’s intention.
Rhetorical Resources: Figures and Tropes
Ornatus involves making speech or text engaging through figures of speech and manipulating the sound and rhythm of words. Classical rhetoricians emphasized incorporating various figures of speech to embellish their speeches, prioritizing the practical needs of the “pragmatic-functional” approach: expressiveness, appeal, audience involvement, etc.
Numerous taxonomies of rhetorical resources exist. We’ll use Spang’s structural model, which distinguishes between two elements: tropes and rhetorical figures.
Tropes
Tropes involve using a word, phrase, or image in a way not intended by its normal signification. Their purpose is to use words in a different sense than usual, but one that bears a similarity, connection, or correspondence to the original meaning. Metaphor is the most prominent example.
A metaphor transfers a word or phrase from its literal meaning to represent something else. Unlike a simile, which states a resemblance (e.g., “like” or “as”), a metaphor asserts an identity.
Figures
In contrast to tropes, rhetorical figures retain the literal meaning of words. However, they often possess phonic, grammatical, or semantic peculiarities that enhance their expressiveness beyond their normal usage.
Several theories attempt to classify rhetorical devices successfully.
Memoria: The Art of Remembering
The Role of Memory in Rhetoric
Spoken speech is crucial for achieving persuasive goals. It’s the culmination of rhetorical discourse, while written practice concludes with the previous three phases. Here, oral communication, or praxis oratoria, comes into play.
In rhetoric, memoria refers to the theory and practice of remembering specific communications, particularly our configured speech.
Classical rhetoricians distinguished between:
- Memoria verborum: Memorizing the text verbatim.
- Memoria rerum: Focusing on memorizing the content.
Memory work involves not only memorizing the words of a specific speech but also storing famous quotes, literary references, and other facts that could be useful in speeches.
Actio (or Pronuntiatio): The Delivery
The Culmination of Rhetorical Communication
Actio, the final articulation and presentation of the speech, culminates the process of rhetorical communication. Avoiding distractions through counterproductive presentation aspects is crucial.
For successful execution, the speaker must understand the rules of “orthology” – correct pronunciation. Maintaining composure and remembering the persuasive objective are essential.
Body language and articulatory nuances of voice and expression are crucial:
- Managing and caring for voice rhythm and tone.
- Mimicry and gestures, body posture, and attire appropriate for the speech, audience, and context.
Acoustics: Natural and Artificial Manifestations
We can distinguish between two types of acoustics:
- Natural manifestations: Speed or rhythm of articulation, pauses, pitch, and intonation.
- Artificial manifestations: Enhancements that increase the communicator’s credibility.
As Spang notes, the audience will perceive the difference between:
- The conversational and moderate voice used for presenting facts in the narratio.
- The ardent and passionate voice used for exhortations and appeals to the audience.
Visuals: Body Language and Persuasion
Body posture and movement contribute to persuasion. Movement, for example, helps maintain the listener’s attention. At this stage, the communicator becomes a performer with a physical presence. Considering external circumstances, such as the context of the speech, is recommended.
The purpose is to articulate the speech in a way that captures the audience’s attention, sparks their interest, evokes their emotions, and facilitates comprehension and retention of the message.