The Formation of Catalonia: From Marca Hispanica to Independence
1. The Formation of the Marca Hispanica and the Origins of Catalonia
During this period, the Catalan language emerged, and the Catalan counties began their journey towards independence from the Frankish kingdom.
1.1 Carolingian Conquest
Between 716 and 726, Catalonia was conquered by Muslims. In 732, the Muslims were defeated by the Frankish army led by Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers. To prevent further Muslim incursions, the Frankish King Charlemagne established a marca between the Pyrenees and the Ebro River: the Marca Hispanica. In 801, the Frankish king visited Barcelona.
1.2 The Creation and Organization of the Marca Hispanica
The territory conquered by the Franks was organized into counties, each governed by an appointed count. Count Aisso Doson revolted and allied with the Muslims of Zaragoza. Many Frankish counts, including Sacosta, also rebelled. The Frankish King Charles the Bald changed his strategy and granted large territories to powerful leaders in the Pyrenees. The Catalan counties were ceded to counts as fiefs.
2. The Times of Wilfred the Hairy: The Birth of Catalonia
In 870, the Frankish King Charles the Bald appointed Wilfred the Hairy as Count of Cerdanya and Urgell. Wilfred founded the dynasty known as the House of Barcelona.
2.1 The Strengthening of the County of Barcelona
The granting of the counties of Urgell, Cerdanya, and Conflent to Wilfred was a reward for his loyalty. In 878, Wilfred also gained control of the counties of Barcelona, Girona, and Besalú. The County of Barcelona became a powerful entity. To defend the territory from Muslim raids, Wilfred led the occupation of the Berguedà region. This area was populated with farmers from the Pyrenees. To protect them, Wilfred fortified the region with a network of castles.
2.2 The Death of Wilfred I
Despite the legend that Wilfred died fighting alongside the French king, he actually died in 897 fighting Muslims near Lleida. Wilfred’s death had two significant consequences:
- Wilfred bequeathed his counties to his sons without seeking the king’s approval. This was the first step towards Catalan independence.
- From the 12th century onwards, Wilfred was regarded as the father of the Catalan homeland. Wilfred’s legacy became intertwined with the creation of a Catalan national symbol: the four red bars on a gold background.
3. The Path to Independence of Old Catalonia
Catalonia can be considered independent by the late 10th century.
3.1 The Confrontation with Cordoba
Despite territorial conquests, Borrell II, grandson of Wilfred, signed an alliance with the Caliphate of Cordoba. The goal was to protect the Catalan counties from Muslim attacks and to open trade routes with Cordoba. Catalans traded European slaves for gold and manufactured goods from the Islamic world. In 985, Muslim troops led by Almanzor sacked Barcelona and enslaved many of its inhabitants.
3.2 The Break with the Frankish Kings
During the 10th century, the authority of the Frankish kings weakened. This allowed Wilfred’s successors to rule the counties with increasing independence. The last Catalan count to pay tribute to a Frankish king was Borrell II in 988. In 987, the Frankish kingdom experienced a change of dynasty. The new king, Hugh Capet, demanded that Borrell II pay homage as his vassal. However, Borrell declared himself a sovereign ruler, initiating a new dynasty. Since the Frankish monarchy had failed to protect the Catalan counts, Borrell considered the feudal agreement broken. This decision marked the beginning of the independent County of Barcelona.
4. A Society of Free Farmers
When the Muslims invaded Catalonia, many inhabitants fled to the Pyrenees. The depopulated lands were difficult to defend as there were no strongholds to resist enemy attacks. As the Franks reconquered the territory, they sought to repopulate it.
4.1 Repopulation
Repopulating the territory was a challenging task. New settlers had to cultivate the land, build houses, and construct castles for defense. The repopulation was carried out through a system called aprisió. Uncultivated and abandoned lands were considered the property of the king. The king granted these lands to peasant families who settled and cultivated them. After thirty years, if no one claimed ownership, the farmers became the legal owners. The counts rewarded those who settled with privileges, which were documented in a town charter or franchise.