The French Revolution: A Tumultuous Era of Change
Francia: The Situation Before the French Revolution
France was a class society where the privileges of the nobility and clergy were maintained. A worsening economic crisis, particularly affecting the prices of basic products like bread, gripped the nation. Another facet of the crisis was the treasury deficit, exacerbated by the increasing cost of the American War.
A social and political crisis was also brewing. King Louis XVI was losing support among the people, who saw that reforms were not advancing. The King feared losing power to the advancing ideas of the Enlightenment.
The Meeting of the Estates General
In 1787, an attempt was made to convince the King to summon a meeting of important people (privileged class) to get them to pay taxes. However, they refused. With France declaring bankruptcy, the King’s only alternative was to convene the Estates General, the French representative assembly, which had not met since 1614.
Before the session, each estate wrote notebooks (cahiers de doléances) with their grievances. The Third Estate’s notebooks showed deep discontent with the old regime. At the same time, the bourgeoisie was organizing political clubs, such as the Jacobin Club, where they discussed political ideas and planned to conquer power. They also founded newspapers to disseminate their ideas.
Beginning of the French Revolution
In the Estates General, the nobility and clergy wanted to vote by estate, which would give them the majority. The members of the Third Estate defended voting by person, which would give them the majority. The Third Estate soon became aware that it represented most of France, giving its deputies greater legitimacy. In June, representatives of the Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly. The King tried to prevent them from meeting, but the members met at a tennis court, where they swore to remain united until a constitution was drafted. The Assembly then renamed itself the National Constituent Assembly.
Amid rising bread prices and rumors that the King was massing troops in Paris, the Parisians rallied and stormed the Bastille.
The Constituent Assembly’s Work
To destroy the old regime, the Assembly approved the decree of the abolition of feudal rights. The tithe was abolished, the jurisdiction of the privileged was removed, and everyone was allowed access to any public office. On August 26th, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was issued. The constitution was designed with the following characteristics:
- The political regime was recognized as a parliamentary monarchy with national sovereignty and rights.
- Division of powers: Legislative power was held by the National Assembly, the executive by the King, and the judicial by the courts.
- Census suffrage: Voters had to be 25 years old and have a certain income or property.
- Decentralization of administration: France was divided into 83 departments, and the importance of municipalities was increased.
The Girondin Convention
The beginning of the Republic meant entering the radical and popular phase of the revolution. When the political system was being organized, the September Massacres occurred, in which the sans-culottes stormed the prisons of Paris and murdered religious and aristocratic prisoners. Elections were called for a new assembly, the National Convention, which was controlled by the Girondins and the Montagnards.
The Convention judged Louis XVI and executed him by guillotine. This measure had two effects: it caused the immediate declaration of war by other European powers, which formed the First Coalition, and it caused a royalist and ultra-Catholic uprising in the Vendée region. In this environment, the war radicalized the revolution. To win, an extension of the army was created by a levy en masse. It was decided to judge counter-revolutionaries, for which a Revolutionary Tribunal and the Committee of Public Safety were created.
The Montagnard Convention
The fear of the revolution’s defeat caused a coup d’état by the sans-culottes against the Girondins. The Montagnards, led by Robespierre, took power. The Montagnards drafted a new democratic constitution with separation of powers. However, Robespierre weakened it and established a dictatorship, concentrating all powers in himself. The murder of Marat by a royalist and the English attack on Toulon caused the Reign of Terror to commence. The constitution was suspended, and the Law of Suspects was passed, by which the Committee of Public Safety could try and execute anyone without further proof. About 5,000 people were murdered.
Robespierre attempted to stop the economic crisis by limiting the maximum prices of basic necessities. Robespierre gradually lost support. When he attempted a new series of arrests, the Thermidorian Reaction coup d’état occurred.
The Directory to the Consulate
A new constitution was created, establishing a liberal regime based on national sovereignty and the separation of powers.
- To be a moderate regime, census suffrage was established, and the legislative branch was divided into two chambers.
- Executive power rested with a Directory of five members. The weakness of the executive caused the royalists to believe it was time to try to restore the Bourbons and led a revolt that was halted by Napoleon.
Napoleon’s Italian campaign ended with the defeat of the First Coalition of European powers. The powers later formed the Second Coalition. Napoleon was supported by the bourgeoisie, who saw in him the person who could stabilize the situation. He led the coup d’état of 18 Brumaire, was proclaimed First Consul, and ended the Directory.