The French Revolution and its Aftermath: A Timeline of Upheaval

Posted on Oct 23, 2024 in History

Causes of the French Revolution

The diffusion of Enlightenment ideals (liberty, equality, national sovereignty) led the middle class to seek an end to absolutism and the privileges of the nobility and clergy. Successive bad harvests and competition with British industry brought hunger, increased tax burdens, and discontent among farmers, traders, and artisans. Excessive state spending on war and the court led to royal bankruptcy.

The Estates-General

What were the Estates-General?

An assembly of representatives from the three social classes:

  • 1st Estate: Church (291 representatives)
  • 2nd Estate: Nobility (270 representatives)
  • 3rd Estate: Commoners (bourgeoisie) (578 representatives)

The king summoned the Estates-General to request new taxes, change laws, and gain support for his decisions, but he was forced to listen to the grievances of the three estates. Each estate had a single vote, favoring the privileged first two estates.

Importance of the Estates-General

The opening of the Estates-General in May 1789 provided the enlightened bourgeoisie with the opportunity to organize and precipitate the outbreak of the French Revolution.

The Storming of the Bastille

The king reacted by calling the army to Versailles to repress the National Assembly. The people of Paris responded by storming the Bastille, a prison and military arsenal, on July 14, 1789. The revolution triumphed: The king and nobles were forced to accept the new situation.

Stages of the French Revolution

  • Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792)
  • The Democratic Republic (1792-1794)
  • The Bourgeois Republic (1794-1799)

The Napoleonic Empire

Napoleon Bonaparte’s military victories brought him prestige, culminating in a coup in 1799. This ended the revolutionary period and led to the establishment of an empire, which nevertheless respected key revolutionary advances: the abolition of Church privileges, the Declaration of the Rights of Man, the establishment of a Constitution, and the creation of a new Civil Code and an independent justice system.

Restoration, Liberalism, and Nationalism

The Congress of Vienna (1815)

After Napoleon’s defeat, the great powers (Russia, Great Britain, Prussia, and Austria) met at the Congress of Vienna to rebuild Europe. Their goals, led by Austrian Chancellor Metternich, included restoring France to its 1792 borders, creating the Holy Alliance to prevent liberal regimes, and suppressing the formation of new nation-states.

The Liberal and National Revolutions

The Revolutions of 1820

Liberal revolutions in Southern Europe saw the imposition of liberal regimes and the abandonment of the old order. Key events include:

  • Spain: Riego’s coup, followed by a return to absolutism in 1823.
  • Portugal: Adoption of a parliamentary monarchy influenced by Spanish liberalism.
  • Greece: Beginning of the independence process from the Ottoman Empire, achieved in 1829.
  • Latin America: Many Spanish and Portuguese colonies gained independence.

The Revolutions of 1830

This revolutionary wave primarily affected Central and Western Europe:

  • France: Overthrow of King Charles X and establishment of a parliamentary monarchy under Louis Philippe.
  • Belgium: Independence from the Netherlands and establishment of a liberal government.
  • Poland: Liberal nationalist uprising suppressed by the Tsar of Russia.
  • Spain: Beginning of Isabel II’s reign and a liberal regime in 1833.

The Revolutions of 1848 (Spring of Nations)

Beginning in France, this wave promoted democratic ideals (universal suffrage, social equality) and nationalism throughout Europe.

  • France: Proclamation of the Second Republic and abdication of Louis Philippe.
  • Austrian Empire: Rise of different nationalities, leading to the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
  • Publication of the Communist Manifesto by Marx and Engels.

Italian and German Unification

Italian Unification

Italy, initially divided into six states, was unified through efforts led by Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont and his prime minister, Cavour. Garibaldi’s revolt in the south led to the incorporation of southern and central states into the Kingdom of Piedmont.

  • 1859: Piedmont’s war against Austria, gaining Lombardy and Veneto.
  • 1860: Incorporation of Southern Italy into the Kingdom of Piedmont.
  • 1861: Victor Emmanuel II becomes King of Italy.
  • 1870: Occupation of the Papal States, reducing the Vatican to a district of Rome.

German Unification

Germany, initially fragmented into over 100 states, was unified under Prussian leadership, driven by Emperor William I and his chancellor, Bismarck.

  • 1834: Zollverein customs union among German states led by Prussia.
  • 1864: War against Denmark over Schleswig and Holstein.
  • 1866: Austro-Prussian War, resulting in Prussian victory.
  • 1870-1871: Franco-Prussian War, Prussian victory, annexation of Alsace-Lorraine, and completion of German unification.