The French Revolution and Napoleon
The French Revolution
Causes of the French Revolution
- Bad harvests and livelihood crisis.
- The middle class had money but was marginalized.
- Financial crisis of the monarchy.
The solution was a tax reform that the King was afraid to implement. The French Revolution began on July 14, 1789, with the storming of the Bastille.
The National Assembly and the Declaration of the Rights of Man
The nobility requested the States-General, which consisted of representatives from the three estates. The bourgeoisie abandoned the Estates-General and formed the National Assembly, vowing to create a constitution. The storming of the Bastille triggered the “Great Fear,” where peasants attacked the nobility and destroyed their properties. In August 1789, the National Assembly issued the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen” and abolished feudal rights.
Stages of the Revolution
Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792)
- National Constituent Assembly: This assembly drafted the Constitution of 1791, which established national sovereignty, separation of powers, and equality among the estates.
- National Legislative Assembly: This assembly was responsible for making laws. It created the National Guard (revolutionary army), confiscated clergy properties, and issued the “Civil Constitution of the Clergy,” declaring priests to be state employees.
- The Flight to Varennes: In 1791, Louis XVI attempted to flee France but was captured in Varennes and brought back. This event led to the declaration of the First French Republic.
Democratic Republic (1792-1794)
- The National Convention: In 1792, the first elections by universal male suffrage were held. The National Convention was established.
- Girondin Convention: In 1793, Louis XVI was tried and guillotined. The Revolution faced threats from counter-revolutionary movements and European powers.
- Jacobin Convention: In 1793, the Jacobins seized power and executed the Girondins. They created a mass army and implemented social reforms, including price controls, distribution of goods, and the sale of clergy lands in small lots. Churches were closed, promoting reason over religion.
Bourgeois Republic (1794-1799)
- The Directory: In 1794, the bourgeoisie came to power through a coup. In 1795, a new constitution was adopted, establishing the Directory as the executive branch, elected by census suffrage. The legislative branch was divided into the Council of Elders and the Council of Five Hundred.
- Napoleon’s Coup: In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup, ending the Directory and establishing the Consulate.
Napoleon Bonaparte
The Consulate and the Empire
Napoleon became First Consul in 1799. His military victories led to peace with Austria. In 1804, he was proclaimed Emperor, gaining support from the bourgeoisie and the French public. Napoleon ended the civil wars, established new institutions, and organized the country’s administration. He signed a Concordat with the Church, reformed the financial system, and established a Civil Code, unifying existing laws. He centralized power, dividing France into departments ruled by prefects.
Napoleonic Wars and the Continental System
Napoleon’s campaigns aimed to export the French political model across Europe. He imposed the Continental Blockade against Great Britain. In 1812, he invaded Russia but was forced to retreat after the Russians burned Moscow. The Napoleonic Empire weakened, and former allies turned against him.
Exile and Defeat
In 1814, Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba. He escaped and returned to France but was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. He was then exiled to the island of Saint Helena, where he died in 1821. Napoleon’s ideas and reforms had a lasting impact on France and Europe.