The French Revolution: Causes, Phases, and Impact
The French Revolution
The Causes of the Revolution
In 1789, France was in a deep economic and social crisis.
- Since 1760, poor harvests resulted in a rise in food prices.
- The bourgeoisie, wealthy and influential, desired positions in the political world.
- The monarchy was in financial crisis, both due to their own expenses and the cost of aiding the American Revolution. The monarchy could not demand tax payments from the nobility without losing their support.
The Beginning of the Revolution: 1789
The revolution began with a revolt of the aristocracy who refused to pay taxes. They demanded that Louis XVI convene the Estates General, a body representing the nobility, clergy, and the Third Estate (commoners), to approve fiscal reform. The Third Estate demanded vote by head, leading to the idea of national sovereignty, where all members represent the will of the nation. The Third Estate formed the National Assembly and undertook to draft a constitution reflecting the nation’s will.
The End of the Old Regime
The people of Paris supported the Third Estate and, on July 14th, stormed the Bastille fortress to defend the revolutionary cause. This sparked an anti-feudal rebellion in the countryside. In response, the National Constituent Assembly decreed the abolition of feudal privileges and promulgated the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, guaranteeing individual freedom, collective equality before the law, and equal taxation.
The First Phase of the Revolution
Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792)
The National Assembly initiated the process of establishing a constitutional monarchy in France based on a parliamentary system. The Constitution established the separation of powers, national sovereignty, and legal equality for citizens. The king retained the right of veto. Indirect suffrage was established, dividing citizens into active (wealthy with the right to vote) and passive (without wealth or political rights) citizens. A Legislative Assembly was formed to draft new laws ensuring equality for all citizens, banning torture, forcing the nobility to pay taxes, and abolishing guilds. A new army, the National Guard, was created.
To resolve the financial crisis, the Assembly expropriated and sold Church property. In return, the state guaranteed the maintenance of worship and issued the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, separating church and state.
Different Political Views
The initial reforms satisfied only the bourgeoisie and faced opposition from the clergy (who lost land), the nobility (who lost privileges), and the poorest sectors of society (who did not benefit from property ownership and faced higher living costs).
Revolutionary movements emerged: the Girondins, the Jacobins, and the Cordeliers, supported by the sans-culottes (popular militias).
The Failure of Constitutional Monarchy
The royal family opposed the Revolution and allied with the Austrian army to invade France and restore absolutism. The Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria. The sans-culottes imprisoned the king and proclaimed the Republic.
The Second Phase of the Revolution
The Democratic Republic (1792-1794)
Girondin Convention
The Republic was initially controlled by the Girondins. The Convention judged and executed Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette for treason. Other European monarchies formed a coalition against revolutionary France, and counter-revolts erupted alongside Allied armies invading France.
Jacobin Convention
Within months, the Jacobins, led by Robespierre, gained control and detained Girondin leaders. They established a social democracy and formed the Committee of Public Safety, which held absolute power. They created an army to fight the counter-revolution and approved social laws, including price and wage controls, distribution of assets among the poor, and the sale of Church land in small lots. Churches were closed.
The Fall of the Jacobins
After a year, the Reign of Terror provoked opposition, leading to a coup where Robespierre and other Jacobin leaders were executed.
The Bourgeois Republic (1794-1799)
Conservative bourgeois regained control, drafted a new constitution, and created the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders for the legislature. They persecuted Jacobins and allowed exiles to return. They faced opposition from aristocrats and the working classes due to rising prices. The army, the only institution capable of imposing order, gained prestige. General Napoleon Bonaparte, with the support of the bourgeoisie, staged a coup and established the Consulate.
Women and the French Revolution
Women participated in the Revolution and demanded the same civil and political rights as men. However, the Declaration of Rights and the Constitution made them passive citizens. They benefited from some social reforms, such as civil marriage, divorce, and inheritance equality, but had no political rights.
The Napoleonic Empire
Napoleon: From Consul to Emperor
Napoleon consolidated his power as consul, achieving many goals of the Revolution: preventing the return of absolutism, allowing exiles to return, and signing a Concordat with the Church to restore religious peace. He reformed the administration, centralized power, issued a Civil Code, stabilized finances, and reformed the education system. He proclaimed himself emperor without opposition, having achieved military victories and demonstrating his ability to govern.
Napoleonic Conquests
Napoleon’s armies conquered much of Europe, imposing revolutionary ideas: abolishing noble privileges, feudal rights, and tithes. He proclaimed economic freedom, the right to property, and religious freedom.
The Fall of Napoleon
Napoleon’s occupation of conquered territories prioritized French interests over revolutionary ideals, leading to resentment and national sentiment. Conquered nations resisted French presence, eventually defeating Napoleon at Waterloo (Belgium).
Restoration, Liberalism, and Nationalism
The Europe of the Restoration
In 1814, the monarchs who defeated Napoleon met at the Congress of Vienna to restore absolutism. They created the Holy Alliance (1815) to intervene militarily against liberal revolutions. However, the French Revolution’s ideas influenced the population, and liberals and nationalists emerged as opposing forces.
Liberalism
Liberalism is a political system based on individual rights. The state must guarantee fundamental freedoms. Individuals are free citizens, and the nation holds sovereignty. It advocates for a representative system with a parliament elected by popular vote, which creates laws. It defends a constitution ensuring the separation of powers to prevent tyranny. Property rights are fundamental, and the economy is market-based with minimal state intervention.
Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology that supports the right of peoples to self-determination and sovereignty. A nation is a group of individuals with shared cultural ties (religion, traditions, language, history) who desire to live together. It emerged in the 19th century, advocating for a Europe of free nations against the Holy Alliance and absolutist empires. Nationalists aimed to align state and nation, creating a national community within defined borders.
Liberal and National Revolutions
The restored absolutist monarchies faced resistance.
Revolutions of 1820 saw several uprisings, but the Holy Alliance’s armies defeated most. Only Greece gained independence from the Ottoman Empire. Spanish colonies in Latin America also revolted, establishing liberal regimes in new republics.
Revolutions of 1830 occurred in Central and Western Europe (France, Belgium, Poland, Britain, and Spain) with widespread popular support. They replaced absolutism with constitutional systems dominated by the bourgeoisie, although suffrage remained limited and public freedoms restricted.
The Spring of Nations (1848)
In Western Europe, the revolutions of 1848 introduced democratic ideals: universal suffrage, popular sovereignty, equality, and the emergence of the working class as a political force. The social republic was proclaimed.