The French Revolution: Key Events and Impacts Explained
The French Revolution of 1789 was the most important phenomenon in eighteenth-century Europe. It involved the removal of the old regime, where the absolute monarchy was replaced by a parliament and eventually by the Republic, marking the rise of the bourgeoisie. The revolution eliminated the privileges of the nobility and the clergy, and the peasantry was freed from bondage.
Key Aspects of the French Revolution
1. Ideological
Marked by the ideas of Enlightenment, which attacked the traditional system and the old regime, aiming at the modernization of society and the happiness of man above any principle. For Voltaire, the church curtailed the freedom of the individual, as it was anti-revolutionary and would not be deprived of its privileges. Montesquieu opposed the absolute monarchy of divine origin and proposed a parliamentary form of government with a separation of powers among the legislative, executive, and judiciary branches. Rousseau challenged the division of estates by advocating for the equality of all men. The French revolutionaries created the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
2. Social
The bourgeoisie, inspired by Rousseau’s ideas, opposed a society where a minority was exempt from paying taxes while the majority had to bear the burden.
3. Economic
After an economic crisis due to drought and natural disasters, many people faced malnutrition and hunger. Prices rose in cities, and feudal lords increased taxes, neglecting the peasantry. Additionally, a financial crisis arose from support for the U.S. in its war of independence against Britain, causing the deficit to soar. Consequently, several finance ministers advised the king to impose taxes on the church and the nobility, leading to revolts against the monarchy and the privileges of the two estates.
4. Political
The king ruled without justifying his power through religious arguments. The nobility and the church distanced themselves from the monarchy as it threatened their tax-exempt privileges. The rural economy was shaken by the crisis, and the bourgeoisie sought to establish a new model of society, economy, and government in line with Enlightenment principles.
Stages of the Revolution
Constituent Assembly (1789-1791)
Formed by members of the bourgeoisie, this assembly removed privileges, ordered the drafting of the Declaration of the Rights of Man, and established the Constitution of 1791. The clergy and nobility had to relinquish their privileges, and tithing was abolished. The bourgeoisie, fearing that urban populations would exploit the collapse of the old system, organized local governments and a people’s militia called the National Guard, promoting the ideas of the Revolution: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.
Legislative Assembly (1791-1792)
This assembly created a national army to defend against other European monarchs, as nobles who had emigrated sought help from Prussia and Austria to restore the old regime. The king was required to swear allegiance to the amended constitution. The assembly implemented strict measures against clergy members who refused to pledge allegiance to the new regime, leading to divisions among the bourgeoisie regarding support for the old regime.
National Convention (1792-1795)
Composed of bourgeois members opposed to the old regime, the National Convention proclaimed the republic and executed the king. They attempted to erase all vestiges of the past by introducing the cult of Reason, leading to a period of terror. Severe restrictions were imposed on church properties, clergy were forced to swear allegiance to the state, monastic orders were dissolved, and voters were chosen for priests and bishops.
The Directory (1795-1799)
Amid fears of renewed terror, the government made way for a young general, Napoleon Bonaparte, who distinguished himself with victories against the Austrians in Italy. This general directed French policy for fifteen years, spreading the principles of the Revolution throughout Europe. Thanks to his prestige from campaigns in Italy and Egypt, he executed a coup that allowed him to overthrow the Directory and establish the Consulate, eventually becoming the First Consul and later the Emperor of the French. His foreign policy was marked by imperial ambitions to dominate Europe, leading to coalitions organized by England to prevent the rise of such a powerful rival. Bonaparte imposed the Continental System on countries to harm British economic interests, invaded Portugal, and intervened in Spain, where Spanish guerrillas defeated the Imperial army in 1808. He personally launched a campaign against the Tsar to secure an alliance with England and Russia, but despite initial successes, he had to withdraw from Moscow. The harsh winter decimated his forces, leading to his defeat and exile to Elba Island, from which he escaped to rule France for a hundred days. Ultimately, he was defeated at Waterloo and exiled to St. Helena, where he died in 1821.
Consequences of the Revolution
Key outcomes included the overthrow of Louis XVI, the abolition of the monarchy in France, the proclamation of the republic, the removal of privileges for the nobility and clergy, the elimination of tithes, servitude, and feudal rights, the abolition of imprisonment for debt, and the disposal of land inheritance to the eldest son. Bonaparte founded the Bank of France, created the University of France accessible to all citizens, and proposed legal reforms such as the right to a fair trial and the freedom of religious expression for every French citizen.