The Generation of ’98: A Literary Renaissance in Spain

Posted on Sep 12, 2024 in Latin

1. Origins and Influences

The Generation of ’98, named after the year Spain lost its last overseas colonies, arose from a need for cultural and literary regeneration. The “Manifesto of the Three,” signed by Azorín, Unamuno, Ramiro de Maeztu, denounced the country’s situation. This led to an idealistic and conservative evolution within the group, focusing on social rather than spiritual guidance. The Generation of ’98 was defined by its rebellion against political corruption, the loss of the colonies, the rediscovery of Spanish culture (old towns, landscapes, medieval writers, and traditional language), and the admiration for the figure of Mariano José de Larra.

2. Common Features

  • Distance from the realist generation and connections with European irrationalism and subjectivism (Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Kierkegaard).
  • Deep concern about the meaning of life, religion, God, time, death, and destiny. Nostalgia for the faith of simple people and a feeling of weariness or distress.
  • Focus on Spain: rejection of the country’s backwardness and criticism of society and the ruling classes. Lyrical exaltation of Spanish landscapes and peoples, especially Castile. Idealization of the Castilian landscape as a symbol of the Spanish soul. Interest in Spanish history, values (thrift, nobility, sacrifice), and the concept of “intrahistoria” (the customs and ways of life of anonymous individuals).
  • Desire to Europeanize Spain without losing its traditional values: evolving from a Peninsularized Europe to a Europeanized Spain. Appreciation for the medieval tradition (Berceo, the Archpriest of Hita, Jorge Manrique) and small towns with their old Castilian Romanesque churches.
  • Sober style with precise, simple, natural, and anti-rhetorical language. Preference for traditional words connected to the land. Subjectivism leading to an introspective view of reality. Emphasis on content over form, with a focus on the essay genre.

3. Ramón María del Valle-Inclán (1866-1936)

Valle-Inclán cultivated both fiction and drama. His early works (Flor de santidad and Sonatas) fall within the modernist aesthetic. The Carlist War trilogy portrays rural Galicia with its magical and superstitious elements. The The Iberian Ring cycle is a grotesque caricature of Spain under Isabel II. Tirano Banderas portrays South American society and the figure of the cruel dictator.

4. Miguel de Unamuno (1864-1936)

Unamuno’s work is marked by two crises: a youthful crisis that led him to lose faith and join socialism, and a crisis in 1897 that awakened him from agnosticism and made him reflect on life, death, and immortality. Central themes in his work include:

  • Concern for Spain (a bleak vision) based on an analysis of the Spanish soul and concluding with the need for a more Europeanized Spain.
  • Spiritual quest (the search for meaning in life) resulting in a permanent conflict between the awareness of existence and the fear of death, leading man to accept religion as a need for immortality. This creates a conflict between reason and faith.

In his novels, which he called “nivolas,” Unamuno rejects formal commitments, focuses on the protagonist’s existential struggle, and emphasizes dialogue. This technique is applied in Mist, Aunt Tula, and Saint Manuel Bueno, Martyr. Unamuno’s characters often serve as his alter egos, reflecting his own concerns and existential problems. His poetry explores similar themes to his essays and narrative works. From a metric point of view, he was inspired by traditional forms.

5. Pío Baroja (1872-1956)

According to Baroja, the novel encompasses everything: philosophy, political confessions, humor, adventure, and social criticism. His technique is based on spontaneity and observation of immediate reality. His characters experience existential changes, reflect Baroja’s own concerns (angst), and are often doomed to failure. They are characterized by a lack of will. His style is short, clear, and precise, without rhetorical flourishes. Baroja’s novels are often grouped into trilogies. His most prominent works include: The Adventures, Inventions, and Mystifications of Silvestre Paradox, The Path to Perfection, Caesar or Nothing, The Concerns of Shanti Andía, The Search, Zalacaín the Adventurer, and The Tree of Knowledge. Baroja is considered part of the Generation of ’98 because he shares their concern about Spain’s scientific, intellectual, and ideological backwardness, which is reflected in his novels. His evolution contrasts with that of other members of the group; he did not become conservative but eventually declared himself anti-Catholic and anarchist.

6. José Martínez Ruiz ‘Azorín’ (1873-1967)

Azorín was a journalist whose political career evolved towards conservatism. In his essays, he devoted special attention to Spain and the reinterpretation of classic literary works. His intention was not to conduct detailed studies but to convey his impressions and personal reflections on Spanish literature. In Castile, he evokes the Castilian lands and people. In his narrative, Azorín proposes minimal storylines; he prioritizes the description of environments and the characters’ impressions, opting for a concise style with short sentences and sobriety. His narrative work can be divided into four stages: the first is marked by autobiography and landscape (The Will, Antonio Azorín), the second reflects his spiritual concerns (fate, obsession with time, destiny) (Don Juan), the third is influenced by the avant-garde, and the fourth focuses on the craft of writing. A supporter of renewing the Spanish theatrical scene, Azorín wrote plays, most notably the trilogy The Invisible. His plays were not successful with the public.

7. Antonio Machado (1875-1939)

Antonio Machado is considered the great poet of the Generation of ’98. His work goes through several phases:

  • Modernist Phase: Modernism marks his first book, Soledades: poetry full of emotions and feelings, covering themes like time, loneliness, death, and God, through a language based on symbols offered by the landscape.
  • Campos de Castilla: This book was not conceived as a single unit but as a collection of poems. It can be divided into four thematic groups:
    • Soria: Combines landscape poems with poems criticizing Spain’s destitution after the disaster of ’98.
    • Baeza: Machado misses the Castilian landscape and his wife Leonor. Criticism of the Spanish countryside appears, described as “ignorant, unchanging, and proud of its tradition.” Hope for a new, more reflective and dynamic Spain emerges.
    • Proverbs and Songs: Short meditations on man and the world, combining philosophical and popular elements.
    • Praise: Fourteen poems in which Machado honors writers and thinkers he admires, such as Ortega y Gasset, Unamuno, Juan Ramón Jiménez, and Valle-Inclán.
  • Later Work: In Nuevas canciones, Machado presents his most intimate concerns and thoughts. He also publishes the anthology Complete Poetry.