The Great Powers and the Road to World War I
Great Britain
The great liberal monarchy of Britain was forged in the Victorian era, corresponding to the long reign of Queen Victoria. During this period, Britain was the most powerful, developed, and prosperous country, exerting the greatest influence globally. As the leading European power, its political system was based on the alternation of two major parties: the Tories (Conservatives) and the Whigs (Liberals). The Whigs later gave way to the Labour Party, which transformed the political landscape in the early twentieth century. Britain’s modernization process was based on English law and successive reforms. The electoral system expanded, with the last major reform occurring in 1885, encompassing universal male suffrage.
France
Following the defeat against Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 and the fall of Napoleon III’s empire, France became the only major European power with a republican political system. The Third Republic had two legislative chambers: the National Assembly and the Senate. It also elected a president with limited powers. This period saw a quest for democratization: the restoration of civil liberties, the establishment of universal male suffrage, and the promotion of a secular state. Compulsory and free secular education was established, and in 1905, the French Section of the Workers’ International (SFIO) was founded, gaining significant influence among the working class. The Dreyfus Affair, a political scandal that divided France, caused international outrage and highlighted the ongoing tensions with Germany over Alsace and Lorraine, territories lost during the Franco-Prussian War.
The Second German Reich
In 1870, Germany began constructing a new Germanic state, becoming an industrial power. The Second German Reich was forged under Chancellor Otto von Bismarck and Kaiser Wilhelm I, who established an authoritarian government. The Reich’s territorial structure was federal, but its regime was based on a strong central government. Bismarck was accountable for his actions to the Kaiser, not to the parliament, and the system lacked equal suffrage for all citizens. There were two chambers: the Reichstag (elected) and the Bundesrat (appointed by the states). The Kaiser could appoint and dismiss ministers independently of the parliament. Pan-Germanism, advocating for the unification of all German-speaking people, gained prominence. In 1891, the Pan-German League was founded. Kaiser Wilhelm II, who ascended to power in 1888, declared a policy of global expansion, focusing on naval development and the creation of a large war fleet.
Causes of the War: Forging Partnerships
By the beginning of the 20th century, most European countries were entangled in a complex system of alliances formed since the late 19th century. These alliances ultimately led to World War I. Between 1870 and 1890, Bismarck promoted a system of international alliances based on maintaining German dominance in continental Europe, creating a central bloc around the German Empire, and containing potential enemies. Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors in 1873, followed by the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879, and finally, the Triple Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy in 1882. This alliance formed the axis of international politics until the outbreak of World War I. Russia, threatened by isolation, shifted its foreign policy towards an alliance with France. After persistent diplomatic efforts, a defensive agreement was reached in 1892, establishing mutual aid in case of military threat. Britain and France, overcoming colonial rivalries, reached an agreement in 1904 known as the Entente Cordiale. This eventually led to the Triple Entente between Britain, France, and Russia.
Colonial Clashes
The Berlin Conference of 1885 attempted to establish rules and arbitration agreements between the European empires regarding the colonization of Africa. However, conflicts erupted again in the early 20th century due to imperial rivalries. The First Moroccan Crisis occurred in 1905 when the German government supported the Moroccan Sultan against French pressure to establish a protectorate. Kaiser Wilhelm II’s visit to Tangier escalated the situation, leading to the Algeciras Conference. Germany, dissatisfied with the outcome, instigated the Second Moroccan Crisis in 1911.
Balkan Crises
Another major source of tension before World War I was the Balkans, a region plagued by conflict throughout the 19th century. Three successive crises erupted in the early 20th century. The first arose when Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, a territory it already administered. This angered Russia and Serbia. The Balkan Wars followed: the First Balkan War in 1912, where the Balkan League (Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro) attacked the Ottoman Empire, forcing it to cede European territories. The Second Balkan War in 1913 saw Serbia, Greece, and Romania, supported by the Ottoman Empire, confront Bulgaria. The Treaty of Bucharest confirmed Bulgaria as the main loser, further destabilizing the region.