The Great War: A Comprehensive Overview
The Outbreak of Conflict
On June 28th, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated in Sarajevo by a Bosnian Serb nationalist. Following this event, Austria-Hungary, backed by Germany, issued an ultimatum to Serbia, accusing it of orchestrating the attack. Austria-Hungary hoped for a localized conflict, but the existing alliance system quickly escalated the situation. Within a week, Russia mobilized in support of Serbia, Germany declared war on Russia and France, and Germany’s invasion of Belgium prompted Britain to declare war on Germany and Austria-Hungary. Public opinion was initially divided on the war, but the rapid escalation and the belief that it was a defensive war led to a surge of patriotism and the formation of “sacred unions” across the political spectrum.
War of Movement and Trench Warfare
In 1914, Germany and Austria-Hungary held initial advantages, including strong and well-equipped armies. However, fighting a two-front war required a swift victory. A prolonged conflict risked isolating them through a naval blockade and attacks from mobilized colonial forces. The German plan involved a rapid offensive against France through Belgium and Luxembourg, followed by a concentrated effort against Russia. Initially, the French were defeated in Alsace but retreated as the Germans advanced through Belgium. From September 6th to 13th, the French forces, led by Marshal Joffre, halted the German advance at the Battle of the Marne, stabilizing the Western Front with the help of their allies. On the Eastern Front, the German advance was more successful, but Russian forces launched a counter-offensive into Austro-Hungarian territory. The Western Front reached a stalemate in 1916 with the Battle of Verdun, where the French withstood German attacks for over four months. The Allies launched an offensive on the Somme but with limited success. On the Eastern Front, a Russian counter-offensive surprised the Germans in 1915, but a renewed German offensive in the summer of 1915 recaptured lost territories, including Galicia, Russian Poland, and Lithuania.
Wilson’s 14 Points
U.S. President Woodrow Wilson advocated for a peace based on international law, respect for national self-determination, freedom of the seas, disarmament, and the establishment of a democratic world order. These principles were summarized in his “Fourteen Points,” which included:
- Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at.
- Freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters.
- The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions among all the nations.
- Adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments will be reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety.
- A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims.
- The evacuation of all Russian territory and a settlement of all questions affecting Russia.
- Belgium must be evacuated and restored.
- All French territory should be freed and the invaded portions restored.
- A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality.
- The peoples of Austria-Hungary should be accorded the freest opportunity to autonomous development.
- Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be evacuated; occupied territories restored; Serbia accorded free access to the sea; and the relations of the several Balkan states to one another determined by friendly counsel along historically established lines of allegiance and nationality.
- The Turkish portion of the present Ottoman Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty, but the other nationalities which are now under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted security of life and an absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous development.
- An independent Polish state should be erected.
- A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.
The Consequences of the War
Demographic and Economic Impact
World War I resulted in the deaths of nearly 8 million people, with an additional 6 million permanently disabled. The war also led to widespread famine, disease outbreaks, and the devastating influenza pandemic of 1918. The high mortality rate among men aged 20 to 40 caused a decline in birth rates and created “lost generations.” The war also shattered Europe’s economic dominance. France lost 30% of its industrial capacity, and Germany lost 22%. Overall, European industrial output fell by 40%, and agricultural production declined by 30%. By 1918, Europe faced a dire economic situation, burdened by both internal and external debt. The United States emerged as the primary beneficiary of the war, becoming a global financial leader. Its gross national product and reserves doubled, and its expanded fleet facilitated its growing role in international trade. The U.S. dollar became the dominant global currency. Japan also benefited from the war, increasing its industrial production to meet European demand for weapons. This opportunity allowed Japan to diversify its industries, modernize its infrastructure, expand its markets, and boost exports. By developing its navy, Japan initiated commercial and maritime expansion across the Pacific, Southeast Asia, and China.
Territorial and Political Consequences
The Paris Peace Conference led to a significant restructuring of Europe’s territorial map, including the dismantling of empires and the emergence of new states like Poland and Finland. The most notable political transformations were the overthrow of traditional dynasties: the Romanovs in Russia (1917), the Habsburgs in Austria (1918), and the Hohenzollerns in Germany (1918). Turkey abolished the sultanate. Democracy gained ground in Germany, Austria, and newly formed nations such as Czechoslovakia and Hungary. Universal male suffrage was implemented in most of Europe, and women’s suffrage was introduced in several countries.
Social Changes
The war disrupted the social fabric of many nations. War profiteers amassed wealth, while those with fixed incomes and low wages experienced a decline in purchasing power. European colonial hegemony faced growing challenges as colonized populations, recognizing their contributions to the war effort, demanded improved treatment. Nationalist movements spread throughout the colonies. Women’s roles also transformed significantly. By the war’s end, women constituted 35% of the industrial workforce in Germany and Britain. Shorter, more practical clothing became common, and women were increasingly seen driving cars and expressing their opinions freely.