The Great War: Origins, Conflict, and Impact
Causes of World War I
The causes that led to World War I include:
- Political Alliances: Led by Germany, the creation of two opposing blocs (Triple Alliance and Triple Entente) led to a period known as the ‘Armed Peace,’ where powers rearmed for a war that seemed inevitable.
- Competition for Markets: The search for markets for industrial products led to frequent conflicts over colonies, with the Moroccan crisis being a significant flashpoint.
- Rivalry for Influence: Competition for zones of influence among European powers.
- Political Opposition: Authoritarian rule in Austria and Germany contrasted with democratic systems in Britain and France.
- National Liberation: The desire for liberation among nationalities under the dominion of great empires.
- The Press: Sensationalist writers fueled the idea that war was inevitable, influencing some statesmen to consider it.
- Crises in Morocco and the Balkans: The Balkans, in particular, became the trigger for the conflict.
These factors created instability in Europe, leading to general tension. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, by a Bosnian student, served as the immediate trigger. Austria, blaming Serbia, issued an ultimatum, which Russia saw as a challenge. Russia sought German support, and when Serbia rejected the ultimatum, Austria declared war on July 28, 1914. The conflict escalated as other nations joined.
World War I (1914-1918)
The armed peace and colonial rivalries had clashed with European powers for years. National problems in the Balkans and strong economic competition also contributed to the confrontation.
- On June 28, 1914, a pro-Serb Bosnian student assassinated Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
- Austria declared war on Serbia. Russia, allied with Serbia, declared war on Austria. The alliance system led Germany to support Austria, and France and Britain to support Russia.
- The war became global: Turkey and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers (Germany and Austria). Italy, despite being part of the Triple Alliance, joined the Triple Entente in 1917, along with Romania, Greece, Portugal, Japan, and the U.S.
- Germany took the initiative but had to defend itself on two fronts: the west against France and the east against Russia.
- By 1915, the western front became a trench warfare stalemate. New weapons were introduced.
- In 1917, Russia withdrew from the war due to the revolution. The U.S. joined the Allied bloc, contributing significantly to its military potential.
- In 1918, Germany was weakened, internal rebellions broke out, and Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated. The republic was proclaimed on November 11, with the imminent defeat, and a ceasefire was signed.
Central Powers: Germany, Austria, Turkey, and Bulgaria.
Allied Powers: Serbia, Russia, France, Britain, Italy, Romania, Greece, Portugal, Japan, and the USA.
International Implications
Colonial interests were a major cause of World War I. German foreign policy aimed to build a colonial empire, which England saw as a threat. Agreements in 1890 split the continent into two groups: the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Italy) and the Triple Entente (Britain, France, and Russia). Countries prepared for war, increasing military spending and promoting war-mongering. The assassination of Franz Ferdinand triggered a chain of war declarations.
Consequences of War
Human and Material Losses: The losses were enormous. Of the 65 million mobilized, 9 million were killed and 9 million were injured. France suffered the most casualties, followed by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. Material losses were significant, with agricultural lands, mines, and stocks destroyed, straining European economies.
Political and Social Consequences: The economy had to adjust to peace. Unemployment and prices rose, leading to a revolutionary climate, civil wars, and worker strikes. Social Democrat or Labor governments emerged in some countries, attempting political reforms.
Territorial Changes: The treaties of Versailles, Saint-Germain, Trianon, and Sevres redrew the map of Europe. Of the five great empires, only the British survived. The German, Austro-Hungarian, Russian, and Turkish empires fell. Germany lost its colonies and territories that became Poland. The Austro-Hungarian Empire split into Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia. Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania became independent from the Russian Empire. Poland re-emerged with territories from Russia and Germany. The Ottoman Empire lost European territory to Greece and Romania, and also lost Syria, Iraq, Transjordan, Lebanon, and Palestine. Serbia disappeared and became part of Yugoslavia.