The Great War: Origins, Key Events, and Lasting Impact
The Road to World War I: Alliances and Tensions
German Chancellor Bismarck orchestrated a system of alliances between Russia, Germany, Austria, and Italy. The objectives were to isolate France and maintain equilibrium in the Balkans. Following the death of Wilhelm I, German Emperor Wilhelm II came to power, leading to the deposition of Bismarck in 1890.
Armed Peace (1890-1914)
Characteristics: The European powers were grouped into two blocks:
- Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy)
- Triple Entente (France, Great Britain, Russia)
Fear led to an intense arms race.
Key Conflicts
- Morocco (1905 and 1911): France, with the help of Britain, achieved victory over Germany.
- Eastern Question: Russia and Austria both sought control of the region, with Serbia and Bulgaria caught in the middle.
Outbreak of World War I
The assassination of Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria, on June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo, triggered the war. Austria declared war on Serbia. Subsequently, Germany declared war on Russia, France, and Great Britain. Italy left the Triple Alliance. The conflict became a world war because the major powers were involved. The Triple Entente received support from Italy, Romania, Greece, and the United States.
Phases of the War
War of Movement
Germany’s Schlieffen Plan aimed for a rapid victory over France through a large-scale surprise attack via Belgium. However, they were stopped at the Battle of the Marne in 1914.
War of Attrition (1914-1917)
The objective was to defend positions. Defensive tactics, such as trenches, exceeded the offensive capabilities of the armies. Key battles included Verdun, where the Germans attempted to break through the front, and the Somme, where the British launched an offensive. The war expanded to secondary zones, including the Mediterranean, German colonies in Africa, and the Middle East. The British fleet blockaded Germany, leading to submarine warfare.
Crisis of 1917
The Russian Revolution led to the overthrow of the Czar and the imposition of a communist government. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918 saw Russia leave the war, ceding territories to Germany. The United States entered the war after the sinking of the Lusitania ocean liner in 1915, contributing over a million soldiers and its strong industrial capacity.
Offensive of 1918 and the End of the War
After Russia’s withdrawal, Germany launched a major spring offensive but failed. The Allied response was a counter-offensive. Facing internal crises and independence movements, Austria and Germany signed an armistice. The Spartacist communist revolution in Germany further weakened the country, leading to its surrender in November 1918.
Consequences of the War
Over 65 million soldiers were mobilized, with more than 8 million killed and 9 million wounded.
Economic Impact
The war economy was as important as the military. Freedom of production and commerce were suspended, and the state made decisions on production. Women joined the workforce outside the home, and many countries granted them political rights afterward. Propaganda became a weapon of the conflict. States invested heavily in scientific research, leading to new weapons such as aircraft, tanks, submarines, artillery, and chemical weapons.
The Paris Peace Conference
A set of treaties signed by the defeated countries.
Goals
- Prevent the resurgence of Germany
- Achieve a balance of power among the victorious powers
- Keep Russia isolated
Territorial Changes
- Germany lost all its colonies, which were taken over by France and Britain.
- The Austro-Hungarian Empire fragmented into Austria, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia.
- The Ottoman Empire became the Republic of Turkey.
- To isolate Russia, Poland and Romania were strengthened.
- Yugoslavia was created, uniting Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia, Montenegro, and Macedonia.
Free City: A city whose sovereignty is in dispute and which comes under the administrative control of a power.
Cordon Sanitaire: Countries surrounding the Soviet Union and Europe, intended to isolate the communist contagion.
War Reparations: Amounts to be paid by the country considered responsible for a war to the victors. U.S. President Wilson imposed his 14 Points as a basis for peace.