The Habsburg Empire: Power, Politics, and Legacy
In 1516, Ferdinand the Catholic died, and Carlos I (also known as Charles V of Germany) inherited the crown of Spain, along with the inheritance from his paternal grandparents. This accumulated a vast territory, but not the title of Emperor. Carlos I levied taxes in Castile, Aragon, and Catalonia to obtain resources to buy the title. This led to the Revolt of the Comuneros, in which the bourgeoisie, the Spanish nobility, urban plebeians, and broad sectors of the peasantry demanded a limitation of royal power, the expulsion of foreign nobility, and more power for the Cortes (Parliament). The war was hard-fought, but Carlos ultimately won, executing their leaders (Padilla, Bravo, and Maldonado). In 1519, revolts broke out in Valencia and Mallorca, known as the GermanÃas, independent of the Comuneros. These were caused by artisans, peasants, and members of the lower clergy, who demanded the abolition of feudal privileges and greater power for the guilds. This revolt also failed, and its leaders were executed. These victories increased royal power and improved the relationship with the nobility. Charles abdicated in 1556 due to the difficulties in strengthening his rule.
Philip II inherited the empire from his father and fought for hegemony in the center of Europe, the protection of land and assets, and the defense of Catholicism against Protestants and Muslims. He shifted the focus from a universal empire to a Hispanic monarchy centered in Castile, with the wealth of the Indies as its source of financing. This was a clear example of absolutism and centralization. In internal politics, he pursued the Hispanicization of the realms, persecuting minorities such as Lutherans and strengthening the Inquisition. This led to increased revolts, such as the Alpujarras Rebellion. In foreign policy, he attempted to achieve European hegemony and defend Catholicism, fighting against the British, French, and Turks. This policy had some successes but at a high cost to the middle and lower classes. By 1596, the European powers united against Philip.
The Political Model of the Habsburgs: The Union of Kingdoms
The large conglomerate of kingdoms and territories held by the Spanish Habsburg Empire became a monarchy under Philip II, whose sole link was the king. In 1561, the capital was established in Madrid, becoming a stable center for the realm’s institutions and Castilianization.
Government of Kingdoms
The government of kingdoms was polisinodal, meaning it followed the confederal model of the Crown of Aragon and operated through councils. New councils were created to govern:
- Council of State: The only common body for all kingdoms, created by Charles I, could be composed of members from any territory. Its mission was to advise the king on all matters. Philip II rarely convened it, and meetings were chaired by the Secretary of the Cabinet, with minor Habsburgs called validos or privados.
- Other Councils: These had territorial functions, such as the Council of Castile, Aragon, Italy, Flanders, the Indies, and Portugal. There were also councils for the Inquisition, the Treasury (only in Castile), and the military orders.
- Viceroy and Governors: They replaced the king in realms where he could not be present, such as Aragon, Navarre, Italy, and America. In Flanders and Milan, they were replaced by a Governor-General.
The Secretariat assisted the king in the conduct of public affairs and the daily management of the monarchy. Notable figures during Philip II’s reign include Gonzalo Perez and his son Antonio.
The Cortes were assemblies of notables from the nobility, clergy, and representatives of cities, which had jurisdiction in tax matters.
The municipalities were increasingly controlled by the nobility, the business elite, and unions. In Castile, the king’s representative in the municipality was the mayor.
The entire institutional framework reported directly to the monarch, whose absolute power was consolidated under Carlos I and Felipe II.