The High Middle Ages: Prosperity, Change, and Urban Revival
The High Middle Ages (11th-13th Century)
A period of prosperity and change. Feudalism was maintained, but kings fought to regain power. There was progress in agriculture, cities revived, and a new social group (the bourgeoisie) emerged. Culture was renewed, giving rise to Gothic art, a new artistic style that gained enormous popularity throughout Europe.
Early Kingdoms and Empires
In the early 9th century, the Kingdom of France and the Holy Roman Empire in Germany emerged in the center of the continent. In the 11th century, the Normans were in the north of the Empire, southern Italy, Sicily, and England. Muslims and Christians disputed rule of the Iberian Peninsula, and the Byzantine Empire held sway. Slavic people were in Eastern Europe between the Baltic and Black Seas.
Kings and Parliaments
The King ruled with the help of the Curia Regis (an assembly of nobles and prelates who were advisors). Parliaments convened representatives of the three social classes, mainly to approve the levy of taxes or financial support. Previously, each social class would present its petitions to the king. With the support of cities, kings consolidated their power over feudal lords as they disposed of economic resources.
Examples of Parliaments:
- England
- États Généraux (general assemblies): France
- Diet: Holy Roman Empire
- Courts: Christian kingdoms
Agricultural Revolution
European farmers had previously carried out relatively low-yield agriculture based on the use of the Roman plough, which barely cut into the ground and was dragged by oxen. Biennial rotation allowed soil fertility to be maintained by leaving half of the farming surface fallow.
Between the 11th and 13th centuries, European farming activities experienced strong growth due to technical innovations:
- Mouldboard plough: Made of iron, enabled soil to be turned and aerated. It was heavier, needed wheels to move, and was pulled by horses.
- Triennial rotation: Dividing the land into three parts, each year a rotation was established, leaving one part fallow.
- Use of a collar made of leather to attach animals to the plough.
- Metal horseshoes to protect animals’ hooves.
- Improved agricultural instruments made of metal.
- The watermill was perfected, making it more efficient than the windmill.
Agricultural production increased, improving the nutrition of the population. Europe experienced strong growth, passing from 36 to 89 million people. The cultivated surface was extended due to the demands of the growing population. Forests were felled to make new fields, marshes were drained, and land was reclaimed from the sea (Dutch polders). Cities were revitalized, and trade was reactivated.
Urban Revival
In the 11th century, urban life was restored, chiefly because of the increase in agricultural production. It became necessary to sell surplus goods and exchange them for others. New cities emerged based on marketplaces, next to castles and monasteries along roads, and coastal ports. Neighborhoods of craftsmen and merchants (boroughs) were created. The term “borough” was used to designate the city as a whole; inhabitants were called bourgeois. Medieval boroughs were located in areas that were easy to defend.
The seat of the diocese was established, others became county towns, locations for administrative functions or counties, economic centers, and cultural and religious centers. Urban space complied with diverse functions.
Most prominent spaces:
- Market
- Cathedral (religious power)
- Town hall (civil)
- Houses of guilds
- Auction houses
- Universities and hospitals
The rest of the city was organized into neighborhoods, each one inhabited by craftsmen of the same trade or job, and in some cases by minorities (Jews). Houses were made of wood, which favored fires. Cities had 15,000 to 50,000 people. Streets were narrow, dirty, and lacked paving or sewerage systems. Diseases were common.