The History and Literature of Early Britain: From Celts to Anglo-Saxons
The Arrival of the Celts
The Celts began to arrive in Britain from northwestern Germany during the late Iron Age, around 700 BC. These tribes of warriors shared a similar language, religion, and culture. Rather than invading, they gradually settled in the country between 500 and 100 BC.
Celtic Life and Culture
The Celts were skilled craftsmen, working as metalworkers, hunters, and fishermen. The use of iron, particularly for weapons, significantly impacted trade and fostered local independence due to its affordability and accessibility. Agriculture also played a crucial role in Celtic society. They are credited with introducing the iron plow, which revolutionized soil cultivation.
Living primarily in small villages or farming communities, the Celts occasionally constructed hill forts for defense. These fortified settlements, consisting of houses encircled by banks and ditches, were typically situated on hilltops. Their dwellings were primarily made of wood with thatched roofs.
The clan, akin to today’s extended family, formed the basic unit of Celtic life. They held deep superstitions and worshipped natural elements such as the sun, moon, and water. Religious ceremonies, often led by Druids, took place in forests and near water. The Druids, highly influential figures in Celtic society, served as priests, judges, and educators.
Unlike many ancient societies, Celtic women may have enjoyed greater rights and a more equal status to men. It is believed they had the freedom to choose their husbands and own property.
Roman Conquest and Influence
Julius Caesar led Roman expeditions to Britain in 55 and 54 BC, but the true conquest began between 43 and 47 AD under Emperor Claudius. The Romans established towns near their military bases, fostering commercial activity. Public baths, accessible to all, became central features of these towns. The Romans’ extensive road network, spanning over 9,600 km, connected various parts of Britain and remained in use for centuries.
London’s origins can be traced back to the Roman invasion. The construction of the first ‘London Bridge’ across the River Thames marked a pivotal moment, establishing a central point for the burgeoning road network. The Roman settlement north of the bridge, Londinium, flourished as a vital trading hub.
Hadrian’s Wall, a monumental defensive fortification and customs barrier, stands as the most significant Roman construction in Britain. Stretching from the east to the west coast, it marked the boundary between England and Scotland.
In 409 AD, Emperor Honorius withdrew Roman troops from Britain to defend Rome against barbarian invasions. This left the Romanized Celts vulnerable to attacks from Anglo-Saxon tribes from Germany and Scandinavia, who invaded in the 5th century, leading to the decline of Roman-British towns.
The Rise of the Anglo-Saxons
The 5th and 6th centuries witnessed the arrival of Germanic tribes—the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes—collectively known as the Anglo-Saxons. These invaders, known for their warrior culture, were largely illiterate, relying on the runic alphabet primarily for inscriptions on stone or metal rather than extensive writing.
Anglo-Saxon Society and Culture
The Anglo-Saxons were skilled farmers and deep-sea fishermen, hunting whales and seals. They resided in wooden houses, often built near rivers or streams. Great halls, adorned with intricate carvings and paintings, served as communal gathering places in their villages.
Anglo-Saxon society placed great emphasis on beauty, craftsmanship, feasting, and drinking. Organized into family groups or clans, loyalty to kin and the tribe’s lord was paramount. Physical courage and personal freedom were highly valued.
The dialects spoken by the various Anglo-Saxon tribes gradually merged, forming Old English, the foundation of Modern English, particularly its vocabulary related to daily life. Initially, the Anglo-Saxons followed a polytheistic belief system, leading to the decline of Roman-introduced Christianity. However, towards the end of the 6th century, Pope Gregory I dispatched Augustine to reintroduce Christianity to England. Augustine established himself in Canterbury, becoming the first Archbishop of Canterbury, and from there, Christianity spread throughout the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.
Monasteries, established across the land, became vital centers of communal life, learning, and culture. Much of our knowledge about the Anglo-Saxons comes from the historical accounts of the Venerable Bede (ca 673-735), a monk who authored”The Ecclesiastical History of the English People” Bede is also credited with being the first to use the term ‘Angle-Land,’ the root of the name ‘England.’
Beowulf: An Epic Tale
Plot
The epic poem”Beowul” narrates the hero’s triumphs over three monstrous adversaries. Set in Denmark, the story begins with the reign of terror inflicted by Grendel, an evil monster, upon King Hrothgar’s mead hall, Heorot. Beowulf, a prince of the Geats, arrives and valiantly offers to confront Grendel. In a fierce battle, Beowulf defeats the monster by tearing off its claw.
As the Danes celebrate Grendel’s demise, Grendel’s mother seeks revenge, killing one of the king’s men. Beowulf embarks on a perilous quest to avenge this death, confronting Grendel’s mother in her underwater lair and ultimately slaying her with a magical sword.
The final part of the epic takes place in Geatland, fifty years later. Beowulf, now king, faces a new threat—a fearsome dragon terrorizing his people. He confronts and slays the dragon but sustains fatal wounds in the process. The poem concludes with a poignant account of Beowulf’s funeral.
Origins and Setting
The epic unfolds across various settings:
- Denmark: The realm of the Danes, ruled by King Hrothgar.
- Heorot: King Hrothgar’s grand mead hall, serving as a communal space for feasting and gatherings.
- A misty lake: Home to a cave where Grendel’s mother resides.
- Geatland: The land of the Geats, located in southern Sweden, ruled by Hygelac and later Beowulf.
Characters
The Hero: Beowulf embodies courage, strength, and generosity. He appears to possess supernatural abilities, enabling him to vanquish monsters capable of flight, fire-breathing, and underwater survival.
The Monsters: Grendel, a descendant of Cain, is a man-eating creature of darkness. His physical appearance is left to the reader’s imagination. Grendel’s mother, lacking a name, resembles a woman but inhabits a supernatural lake teeming with sea-dragons. Both she and Grendel possess blood with corrosive properties, capable of dissolving swords. The final monstrous antagonist faced by an aging Beowulf is a winged, fire-breathing dragon.
Style and Themes
Beowulf has all the typical stylistic features of classical epic poems. It depicts a warrior society, where fate and destiny rule man’s life. It exalts the bravery of the hero who can stand against fate. Loyalty to to one’s lord or neighbour has great importance, Beowulf risks his life to help King Hrothgar, a neighbour in trouble. The poem deals with the eternal conflict between good and evil, and shows Christian values when Beowulf prays to the Creator of all things. God’s will is identical to fate.