The History of Spain: 1830-1874

Posted on Nov 1, 2024 in History

The Pragmatic Sanction and the First Carlist War

In 1830, Ferdinand VII issued the Pragmatic Sanction, which recognized the right of women to inherit the throne. This excluded Don Carlos from the throne, and his followers opposed the legitimacy of the Pragmatic Sanction. Taking advantage of the king’s illness, Don Carlos’ supporters, through the minister Calomarde, obtained a document in 1832 that repealed the Pragmatic Sanction. However, Ferdinand VII recovered and confirmed the inheritance of his daughter Isabel, appointing Cea Bermúdez as head of government. He sought the support of liberalism and authorized the return of exiles while suppressing the budgets of the Royalist Volunteers.

In 1833, Ferdinand VII died, and his widow, Maria Cristina de Borbon, inherited the Spanish throne on behalf of her daughter, Elizabeth II. Don Carlos did not accept this decision and took the lead of the Carlists, who had prepared their uprising. Thus began the First Carlist War, a civil war lasting until 1839.

The Age of Elizabeth II

The Regency of Maria Cristina (1833-1840): The Rise of Constitutional Monarchy

During Maria Cristina’s regency, several Liberal governments succeeded each other, coping with political instability created by the Carlist War and hostility between liberals, moderates, and progressives.

• Moderates: Accepted constitutional doctrine within a covenant between the Crown and the nation. They favored order, feared radical ideas, and represented the propertied classes and conservatism.
• Progressives: Advocated advanced reforms, supported by the middle class, defended the principles of the 1812 Constitution (especially national sovereignty), and proposed confiscation to fund the Carlist War.

Royal Charter of 1834: Transition from Absolutism to Liberalism

Maria Cristina, with the moderates and Francisco Martinez de la Rosa, issued the Royal Charter of 1834. This transitional document combined the Crown’s absolute powers with some liberal ideals. It introduced a representative system but did not address national sovereignty or individual rights. The cameras could not make laws independently but could request proposals from the king.

However, this compromise satisfied neither liberals nor absolutists. Liberals demanded greater freedoms and the 1812 Constitution. During 1835, the situation radicalized, with popular revolts against the clergy (accused of Carlist sympathies) and renewed support for progressives. The moderate ministry proved unable to control the revolutionary situation, leading to a change in government.

The Full Triumph of Liberalism

Disentailment of Mendizabal

In 1835, Maria Cristina appointed the progressive Mendizabal to the government. His main concerns were the treasury and the Carlist War. He launched the ecclesiastical confiscation, abolishing convents and religious congregations. Church properties were awarded to the state and auctioned to pay the public debt.

However, Mendizabal’s program failed. The Vatican and the church were outraged, farmers protested rising land leases, and the new electoral law (increasing voters) created unrest among moderates.

Constitution of 1837

After the mutiny of the sergeants of La Granja, progressives formed a new government under Jose Maria Calatrava, with Mendizabal in finance and Espartero in war. The liberal system was consolidated with the Constitution of 1837. This conciliatory constitution aimed to integrate liberals, moderates, and the Crown. It reflected the 1812 Constitution’s principles but adopted a mixed bicameral parliamentary system (appointed Senate and directly elected Congress).

The courts dismantled the old regime, suppressing unions, jurisdictional rights, and extending disentailment. The Constitution of 1837 remained in force until 1845.

First Carlist War (1833-1840)

The Carlist Opposition to Liberalism

The First Carlist War was fought between supporters of Don Carlos and defenders of Elizabeth II. While the apparent reason was dynastic legitimacy, it also represented a clash between a traditional socioeconomic model and the emerging liberal state.

Carlist ranks included peasantry, artisans, some nobility, regular clergy, and rural priests. Geographically, Carlism was strongest in rural Basque Country, Navarre, and mountainous areas of Aragon, Catalonia, and Levante.

The Christines or Elizabethans were supported by the landed gentry, urban middle classes, and most officers and generals.

The Phases of the War

1. 1833-1835: Uprisings in Basque Country, Navarra, Aragon, Catalonia, and the Mastership. Carlist leader Zumalacárregui achieved successes, but his death at the siege of Bilbao changed the war’s course.
2. 1836: Carlists failed to take Bilbao due to Espartero’s intervention. The Royal Expedition, led by Don Carlos, reached Madrid’s outskirts but was unsuccessful.
3. 1839: The Convention of Vergara, between Espartero and Maroto, recognized Carlist military ranks who joined the Elizabethan army. Don Carlos fled to France, but some Carlist leaders, like Cabrera, continued fighting in the Levant.

Restriction of Basque Privileges (1839)

The Regency of Espartero (1840-1843)

Confrontation with Moderates and Exile of Maria Cristina

After the Carlist War, General Espartero gained popularity and prestige. In 1840, the moderates attempted to pass laws violating the 1837 Constitution, like the contentious Law of Municipalities. Espartero and the progressives opposed it. When Maria Cristina signed the law, Espartero asked for its annulment. She refused and abdicated the regency, leaving the country.

Triumph of the Antiesparterista Opposition (1843)

Espartero assumed the regency until 1843 in a climate of instability. His favoritism in the army upset many. He harshly suppressed moderate pronouncements, earning him a reputation for despotism. Radical liberals accused him of lacking reforms.

A clash with Catalan industrialists further damaged his prestige. Artisans and industrialists revolted against a rumored free trade agreement with England. Espartero ordered the bombing of the population.

A coup led by General Narvaez defeated Espartero’s forces. Elizabeth II fell into the hands of moderates, and Espartero fled to London.

The Moderate Decade (1843-1854)

Constitution of 1845

Between 1844 and 1854, the moderate party, supported by General Narvaez, held power. They limited the scope of progressive reforms. The 1845 Constitution removed the most advanced aspects of the 1837 Constitution and endorsed census-based liberalism. National sovereignty was replaced by joint sovereignty between the King and the Cortes. Catholicism was strengthened, the monarch’s role was reinforced (including appointing and removing ministers), the Senate became royally appointed, the National Militia was abolished, and the vote was restricted.

The moderate government, supported by the queen, maintained a constitutional facade but practiced rigged elections. Centralizing reforms were introduced, including national security, state finances, and public education. Disputes with the Vatican were resolved, returning the Catholic Church to a central role in Spanish life.

Political Work

• Guardia Civil: Created in 1844 under the Duke de Ahumada to maintain public order. A centralized, national body with civilian aims but a military structure.
• Administrative Reform: Centralized and streamlined state administration, expanding its functions and powers.
• Financial Reform: Led by Alejandro Mon, creating direct and indirect taxes.
• Education Reform: Led by Pedro Pidal, dividing schools into public and private. Secondary education institutions were called institutes.
• Concordat with the Holy See (1851): Resolved disputes with the Vatican, stipulating state support for the clergy and returning unsold church property. Catholicism was recognized as the religion of the Spanish nation, and ecclesiastical intervention in teaching was ensured.

Revolution of 1854

The last moderate governments were accused of corruption and despotism. Faced with opposition, the courts were closed, rule by decree was implemented, and a constitution strengthening the Crown and eliminating the electorate and Parliament’s legislative function was prepared.

In 1854, General O’Donnell’s military coup, the Vicalvarada, brought down the government. Moderate politicians, like Canovas del Castillo (author of the Manifesto of Manzanares), supported him. The Manifesto expressed aspirations coinciding with Spanish liberalism. Isabel II, fearing for her throne, called Espartero to form a government.

The Two Progressives (1854-1856)

Government of Espartero

Following the 1854 revolution, a government headed by Espartero, with O’Donnell in the war ministry, was formed. The political landscape widened with expanded freedom of association. The Democratic Party emerged, demanding democratization, universal suffrage, secularism, and full democratic freedoms. The Liberal Union, a renewed moderate sector led by O’Donnell, aimed to combine freedom and order. Its ranks included moderates and progressives like General Serrano and Canovas del Castillo.

A new constitution, based on the 1837 Constitution, was attempted but did not take effect due to the progressives’ short term. It created suspicion in the Holy See regarding religious tolerance. Relations with the Vatican were broken due to this and the resumption of ecclesiastical confiscation.

Confiscation of Madoz (1855)

Progressives implemented an economic program based on Adam Smith’s free trade doctrine. Liberalizing laws were enacted, including the Madoz Act of 1855, which secularized all mortmain properties. Auctions and sales doubled those of Mendizabal. Municipalities and their neighbors were hit hard, losing most common lands. The Railway Act of 1855 incentivized foreign companies to build railway lines. A modern Company Law facilitated financing and investment. The Bank of San Fernando was renamed the Bank of Spain, with a state-provided function despite being private.

O’Donnell’s Resignation and Espartero’s Fall

The first worker associations emerged, raising demands in a confrontational climate marked by a cholera epidemic and rising prices. The first general strike in Barcelona and popular riots occurred in 1855. The government failed to maintain order, and O’Donnell demanded Espartero’s resignation. The Liberal Union took power.

The Period of the Liberal Union (1856-1868)

Restoration of the 1845 Constitution

O’Donnell restored the 1845 Constitution with some changes, promoted railway development and public works, continued the Madoz disentailment, and negotiated an agreement with the Holy See on disentailed church property.

Military Interventions Abroad

Spain participated in colonial initiatives with France and Britain. Expeditions to Africa were conducted due to Moroccan attacks on Ceuta. Despite victories like Prim’s at Castillejos, peace benefits were limited.

Economic and Political Crisis

From 1866, conservatism faced three problems: social demands for political participation, corruption and discrediting of Elizabeth II’s court, and a major economic and financial crisis. A food crisis led to grain shortages, rising prices, hunger, and disease, affecting the business bourgeoisie as well.

The Revolution of 1868

After suppressing the revolt of the sergeants of San Gil and student demonstrations, an alliance of progressives and Democrats (Pact of Ostend) was formed. The uprising in September 1868 started in Cadiz, with military leaders shouting “Long live Spain with honor!” Revolutionary juntas formed across the country. Military leaders like Prim, Serrano, and Topete led the insurrection. The queen’s army was defeated at Alcolea del Pinar, and Elizabeth II, vacationing in San Sebastian, was exiled to France.

Prim consolidated coastal cities, securing the uprising’s success in Barcelona on October 3.

The Revolutionary Sexenio (1868-1874)

Serrano’s Interim Government and the Democratic Constitution of 1869

In October 1868, a provisional government formed after Elizabeth II’s exile. It was backed by moderate revolutionaries, progressives, and unionists. General Serrano presided, but Prim was the most popular figure. This initiated a period of instability, aiming to complete the liberal revolution and advance democracy.

The provisional government dissolved revolutionary juntas and Volunteers of Liberty, enacting liberalizing measures: expanding freedom of expression, assembly, and association, and granting suffrage to all males over 25.

In the 1869 Constituent Assembly elections, a coalition of monarchical unionists, progressives, and Democrats won. Republicans, Elizabethans, and Carlists were also present.

The 1869 Constitution was uniquely democratic, proclaiming national sovereignty and universal male suffrage. Freedoms of association, assembly, speech, correspondence, residence, and worship were expanded. The monarchy was retained, but powers were separated more clearly. The executive power belonged to the monarch, who acted through ministers responsible to the Cortes. The monarch could dissolve the Cortes. A bicameral system with an elected Senate and Congress was established.

This constitution remained in force until the proclamation of the First Spanish Republic in February 1873.

The Regency of Serrano (1869-1870): Economic and Political Difficulties

Spain was a monarchy without a king. A regency headed by General Serrano was established, with Juan Prim as head of government. Canovas del Castillo began forming an Alfonsino party to support Elizabeth II’s son.

Prim sought a new monarch. Amadeo of Savoy, from a liberal dynasty, was his favorite. However, the Savoy’s anticlericalism was problematic. Other candidates were considered, including Leopold of Hohenzollern, whose candidacy led to the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. Prim prevented Spanish involvement and secured the Cortes’ acceptance of Amadeo of Savoy in 1870.

The Regency developed laws to implement the constitution: electoral law (confirming universal male suffrage), Public Order Act, Criminal Code, etc. Economic reforms were also pursued. Finance Minister Figuerola established progressive tariff reductions.

The government faced several problems:

1. The Ten Years’ War in Cuba (1868-1878).
2. Federal republican insurrection.
3. Carlist uprising in 1869, led by pretender Charles VII, was suppressed.
4. Peasant and popular discontent, leading to social unrest and the growth of worker associations, promoted by Fanelli and the International Workingmen’s Association.

The Reign of Amadeo of Savoy (1871-1873): An Attempted Democratic Monarchy

During Amadeo I’s reign, two parties emerged: Zorrilla’s radicals (including Democrats) and Sagasta’s constitutionalists (liberals and unionists). Political instability was prevalent.

Amadeo’s reign was short-lived due to several factors: Prim’s assassination, inherited problems (Cuban insurrection and republicanism), hostility from the nobility and bourgeoisie, and a new Carlist uprising in 1872.

Overwhelmed and feeling rejected, Amadeo I abdicated in February 1873. The immediate cause was a clash between the government (led by Ruiz Zorrilla) and the army over artillery control.

The First Republic (1873-1874)

After Amadeo I’s abdication, the National Assembly proclaimed a republic on February 11, 1873. The political situation was chaotic and unstable due to:

1. Lack of popular support and republican ideological divisions (Federalists vs. Unitarians).
2. Inability to resolve conflicts: social demands, Carlist advance (Third Carlist War, 1872-1876), Cuban War of Independence (1868-1878), and the Cantonal rebellion (1873-1874).

The Republic had four presidents:

• Estanislao Figueras: Elected by the National Assembly, his weak government was overwhelmed by federalist pressure.
• Francisco Pi y Maragall: Focused on developing a federal constitution, but it was never approved due to the Cantonal rebellion.
• Nicolás Salmerón: Sought conservative support, using repressive measures to resolve conflicts.
• Emilio Castelar: Continued Salmerón’s policies, restoring order and suppressing the Cantonal rebellion. His conservative policies lost him the support of the republican left.

In 1874, General Pavia’s coup overthrew the Federal Republic, leading to General Serrano’s authoritarian government. In December 1874, General Martinez Campos proclaimed Alfonso XII, son of Elizabeth II, king in Sagunto, ending the Republic.