The Holy Alliance and 19th Century European Politics
The Holy Alliance and Attempts to Restore the Old Order
Following Napoleon’s defeat, European powers convened in Vienna to reshape the continent. This conference, involving Austria, Russia, and Prussia, aimed to establish a new map of Europe and a political system underpinned by the ideology of The Holy Alliance.
The New Map of Europe
The redrawing of Europe’s map was justified by Napoleon’s defeat but was also influenced by the interests of countries like Austria, Prussia, Russia, and England.
The Holy Alliance: Interventionism and Ideology
The Holy Alliance, initially a vague statement without clear political commitments, evolved into a tool for justifying interventionism. Its goal was to assert the right of its members to intervene in any country facing revolutionary threats.
Revolutions of 1820: Reasons and Results
- Spain: Anti-absolutism against Ferdinand VII, advocating for the Constitution of 1812. Suppressed by the Holy Alliance after pronouncements.
- Naples: Fought for freedom, adopting the 1812 Spanish Constitution.
- Portugal: Fought for liberalism.
- Piedmont: Uprisings for liberal reforms.
- Greece: Nationalist struggle for freedom and independence.
Revolutions of 1830
- France: Conservative reaction to King Charles X led to the rise of King Louis Philippe of Orleans, who implemented a more liberal constitution. Suppression of freedom and dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies were met with resistance.
- Belgium: Achieved independence through liberalism and nationalism.
- Poland: Liberal and nationalist uprising suppressed by Russia in the late 1830s.
- Modena, Parma, Bologna, Papal States: Liberal uprisings failed due to Austrian repression.
- Spain: Death of Ferdinand VII led to the Carlist Wars, a civil war between liberals and conservatives. Constitutions of 1834 and 1837 were established.
- America: Independence of Spanish and Portuguese colonies.
Revolutions of 1848
- France: Economic crisis, democratization movements, and workers’ struggles. Repression led to a separation between the bourgeoisie and laborers, eventually resulting in the Second Empire.
- Vienna: Uprisings for liberalism, anti-constitutionalism, parliamentary monarchy, and the end of feudalism.
- Italy (Milan, Venice, Naples, Piedmont): Liberalism, nationalism, and unification efforts failed due to Austrian repression.
- Austria-Hungary (Czech Republic, Slovakia, Serbia, Hungary): Failed attempts at liberalism and nationalism.
- Germany: Attempts to establish a constitution and parliament failed.
The Rise of Nationalism
Nationalism, an ideology developed in the 19th century, is based on the concept of “nation.” It became the foundation for future nation-states and the driving force behind struggles for independence and the creation of new states.
- Liberal Nationalism: Based on the principle of national sovereignty.
- Romantic/Historicist Nationalism: Identifies the nation as a political community rooted in history.
- Integrative Nationalism: Aims to unite different territories.
- Disintegrative Nationalism: Seeks independence, separating territories from a larger political community.
German Unification
The German states were under the influence of the Kingdom of Prussia. The German nationalist movement aimed to build a unified Germany, with Austria initially vying for leadership. Ultimately, the Kingdom of Prussia spearheaded the unification. In 1861, William I became King, and in 1862, Otto von Bismarck became the architect of German unity.
Italian Unification
The Risorgimento was the process that led to the unification of Italy into a new liberal state. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, a constitutional monarchy and the only state with liberal institutions, was the driving force behind this unification.