The Iberian Kingdoms in the 11th and 12th Centuries

Posted on Oct 21, 2024 in History

ITEM 5:

– The Hispanic Monarchy: from Alfonso VI to the imperial idea of Alfonso VII.

– The conquest of Toledo and the presence Almoravid.

– Civil War and urban riots.

– The Imperium of Alfonso VII.

– The independence of Portugal.

– The Hispanic Monarchy

Fernando I, first Castilian monarch, died in 1065 and in his will divided his dominions between his descendants: Sancho II became King of Castile, Alfonso VI of León, García rule in Galicia and their daughters, Elvira and Urraca domain received on the monasteries of the kingdom, which was considered as an infant. Alfonso VI protested to the situation. This is also compounded by the intention of Sancho II to revoke the will of his father and he and his brother, agreed to challenge the joint inheritance in a battle with time and place indicated. Alfonso VI was taken prisoner and Sancho II was crowned in Leon in 1072.

With the intervention of his sister Urraca, after taking the oath of allegiance, Alfonso VI could be released. Magpie then began plotting against his brother Sancho, the Leon siege to Zamora, Sancho II was assassinated, and Alfonso was soon to claim all the land of his father (Castilla, León, Galicia, Portugal and Asturias), becoming the most powerful king of the Peninsula and prefiguring the idea of empire.

– The conquest of Toledo and Almoravid pressure

The weakness of the Taifa of Toledo with the ascension to the throne of al-Qadir in 1075 raised the spirits of conquest of the Taifa of Seville and Badajoz. Faced with this danger, al-Qadir sought the help of Alfonso VI, Toledo who liberated the fence that was being submitted and got al-Qadir was delivered to a radical Castilian protectorate. Meanwhile, the King of Badajoz sought the help of the Almoravids of North Africa to fight against Christians.

The total annexation of Toledo came when the Castilian government supporters in Toledo sought help from Alfonso VI to the claims of Muslims in the city that had requested assistance to the king of Zaragoza. After several years of struggle, Alfonso VI succeeded the capitulation of the city in May 1085, involving annexation to Castile, the kingdom of Toledo and the delivery of the first great city of Islam in the Peninsula.

With the conquest of Toledo, Alfonso VI was an immense prestige: all territories north were incorporated into the Tagus its monarchy and, since 1085, doubtless used the title of emperor. The Castilian Empire was a fact, when the death of Ramon Berenguer II sparked the Civil War in Catalonia, a part of the Catalan nobles decided to go to Alfonso VI at the request of assistance and protection for the rights of Ramón Berenguer III. Alfonso VI was regarded among Muslims asdul-millatayn emberator, emperor of the two religions: Zaragoza was offered as a prize immediately. However, the king of Sevilla got Tashfin Yusuf went on the help of the Muslims of Al-Andalus.

The Berber movement that led to the Almoravid Empire was essentially religious. A head of a Berber clan pilgrimage to Mecca in 1039 and returned to preach the true doctrine and practice of Islam, without much success, retired to a ribat, fortified monastery, with his disciples, forming a new sect (al-morabbitum, “The inhabitants of ribat”) under which it would be holy war. Abd Allah would be their first leader, getting Siyilmasa Senegalese troops conquer in 1053.

But his successor, Yusuf ben Tashfin who get to organize a real empire with its capital in Marrakech. In less than twenty years. Tashfin dominated the entire Sahara Desert and the Mediterranean coast of Africa.

The starting point for intervention in Al-Andalus were the successive calls for help from the party kings and conquests of Alfonso VI, who threatened over the Muslim presence. In addition, the kings of tafia, convinced they were going to disappear, diluted preferred within Islam.

When in 1086, Alfonso VI claimed all the land that had belonged to the kingdom of Toledo, the Taifa of Seville, Badajoz and Granada asked for help from Yusuf ben Tashfin. That same year, the head of a powerful army, Tashfin appeared in Algeciras and Seville, received lots of reinforcement of Seville, Granada and Malaga to relieve Badajoz. In October of 1086 was fought the battle of Sagrajas (Zalaca) where Tashfin got a hard victory over the Spaniards. At this time, Alfonso VI Christian kingdoms used the peninsular and to confront the threat ultrapyrenean Almoravid.

After the failure of the siege of the castle of Aledo in 1089, the Almoravids received great support from the Andalusian population, who saw Yusuf ben Tashfin the restorer of Islamic orthodoxy in terms of taxes. The Taifa knew and Seville and Granada tafia started negotiations with Alfonso VI in search of support against the Almoravids. Yusuf failed in his attempt to take Toledo, blaming the Taifa, who had not attended the battle because their armies were mercenaries who had to pay taxes on the inhabitants of the Taifa, causing social unrest. In this situation, Yusuf decided to act and invaded the Taifa of Granada and Malaga were incorporated into the Empire. Soon after, Yusuf declared war on Seville.

The Andalusians requested assistance to all Christian princes, whose armies were under the command of El Cid. In this area, Córdoba succumbed, and the widow of Muslim king fled to Castile, where she became the mistress of Alfonso VI took the name Elizabeth. In 1091, Yusuf ibn Tashfin closed his campaign on Taifa taking the cities of Seville and Almeria and Murcia Badajoz also fall quickly.

That’s when Alfonso VI idea to plan a line of defense against the Almoravids that extended from Lisbon to Valencia. The troops of Alfonso VI of Castile went to Lisbon, which they occupied, and whose government was given to Raymond of Burgundy, while in Valencia, El Cid managed to take the city (1094) after several riots in favor of the arrival of the Almoravids , and also signed a treaty of alliance with Peter I of Aragon to the joint fight against Islam.

In the west of the Peninsula, Raymond of Burgundy lost Lisbon, being replaced by another brother of Alfonso VI, Henry of Burgundy, who was the future Henry I of Portugal.

Despite the tough opposition from Christians, the Christian conscience was of failure against the Almoravids. The consequences were important: the imperial idea Castilian collapsed and small powers Pyrenees, compressed by the great expansion, again have an opportunity to move against Islam.

Tashfin ben Yusuf was making his fourth campaign in peninsular lands, taking aim again Toledo. But Alfonso VI came out to meet him, suffering defeat in Consuegra in 1098, but managed to undermine the forces of Yusuf returned to Africa.

On the other hand, the death of El Cid in 1099 meant the disappearance of the resistance offered by Valencia, where the Castilian troops leave the town three years later to be left to the mercy of the Almoravids.

Tamin ibn Yusuf was appointed governor Almoravid in Al-Andalus, Granada taking as the headquarters. Tamin organized a great campaign with a great army and took Uclés Despeñaperros crossed. Alfonso VI, very old, handed over the kingdom to his son
Sancho ten years, and the command of the army went to the Count de Nájera. The Castilian army Uclés addressed, which fought a battle (1108) ending with the death of the Count and Sancho.

The following year, the Almoravids launched a major offensive, plundering Talavera, Madrid and Guadalajara, and besieging Toledo, who took hold. The firm resistance broke the power of the Muslims who did not return to launch any offensive.

– Civil War and urban riots

The Birth of Sancho, son of Alfonso VI and his mistress Elizabeth, prompting Henry and Raymond of Burgundy is allied in a common defense of their heritage and the right of Urraca, wife of Raymond, the Castilian-Leonese throne. Later, Urraca gave birth to a son named Alfonso, who was delivered into the custody of the counts of Lock in Galicia, a territory where Urraca and Raymond exercised their power.

On the other hand, the Gregorian reform had resulted in the consolidation of power of the bishops in their dioceses. Faced with the nobility meant more ethical power, but also more conservative. Gelmírez Diego, which had followed the see of Santiago had the support of the Burgundians and the Pope through them: he wanted to elevate the seat metropolitan Compostela, spiritual center of Europe, and ensure the holder immediately place itself sovereign.

When Raymond of Burgundy died in 1107, Diego Gelmírez and raised Lock Count Alfonso VI Alfonso Raimundez succession, his nephew. The king gave his son Urraca and dominion over Galicia and Galician nobles hastened to give deference to Alfonso Raimundez.

After the disaster of Uclés (1108) established the following situation: an old king, without direct male successor and seemed unable to cope with the threat of invasion Almoravid. Meanwhile, Henry of Burgundy, took the situation to turn Portugal into a separate county. The three branches of the territory Braga, Porto and Coimbra, were occupied by French clerics who were in favor. Henry’s intention to convert at headquarters Braga primate of Spain met with the grant of Pope Paschal II to Gelmírez of this right in certain circumstances.

Urraca, widow, mother of a child of four years and needed a husband to exercise the functions inherent in sovereignty and guardianship. It may have been Alfonso VI who propose to Alfonso the Battler of Aragon. The union project, namely to transmit real power Alfonso I of Castile and Leon, encountered strong opposition, but the decision was made. Alfonso VI died in 1109.

This project was doomed to fail, and that tried to unite very opposite characters: Magpie was a sensual and political instability, while Alfonso I was a very religious man and servant of God. They were also the interests of the counts of Lock and Gelmírez for supporting Alfonso Raimundez and Portugal, apart from the opposition of the nobility of Castile and León, the new king.

Urraca and Alfonso signed the “Pact of Union, which seemed to announce the merger of the two crowns. First of all pledged to preserve their marriage over kinship, excommunication, or anything else. Her husband belonged to administer the assets of his wife as was the use, but in turn was Alfonso’s wife pledging all economic domains. And finally, ruled that children born to inherit all the kingdoms, if there were no children would Raimundez Alfonso.

In Galicia there emerged a movement composed Urraca obedience to the gentry: the “hermandiños” to fear the power of great nobility. Meanwhile, the opposition to Alfonso I, led Candespina Gómez González and Pedro González de Lara, trying to make Magpie against her husband, Pope Pascal II declared invalid and illegal the marriage of Urraca, by default there kinship . However, both Urraca and Alfonso I disregarded the dictates of the Pope and, while Magpie was going to Aragon to take power in terms of the pledge given, Alfonso I of Castile, placed trusted men in all key positions and took the situation of public discontent to support citizens against ecclesiastical dominion. Magpie sent letters to the Castilian nobles, saying they disobeyed the orders of her husband.

Alfonso I began to act against the Church, and the Castilian nobles found the reason to rise in rebellion against the King of Aragon: free the Queen Urraca, in Aragon captive by her husband. The kingdom of Castile fell into Civil War.

While in Galicia, Alfonso hermandiños Raimundez fenced and the Countess of Lock, getting the capitulation by the intervention of Gelmírez, Lock Count Urraca offered its support if it recognized the rights of your child. On the other hand, Alfonso I got the support of Henry of Portugal in exchange for the surrender of the territory of Astorga and Zamora and immunity in the government of their territory.

Locking Count proposed a solution: the proclamation of Alfonso VII, together with their mother on the throne. The two counts, Candespina and Lara Urraca managed to free from prison and take her to Burgos. Urraca, the influence of Pedro González de Lara, began seeking support everywhere to undermine her husband Gelmírez, the counts of Lock and the Counts of Portugal. A Henry of Portugal was offered more than what is offered by Alfonso I, ie the separation is offered in your county in the kingdom. However, when he realized Urraca purposes of Henry and Teresa, began negotiations with Alfonso to restore the situation and fight against the Portuguese.

At this time, and Count Gelmírez interlocks, warning before Dona Urraca, undertook the project of Alfonso VII’s coronation. The Portuguese, meanwhile, began the fight against Urraca and Alfonso, and sought an alliance with Gelmírez, referring to the pact before the 1100 Burgundy, but Gelmírez wanted to persuade the queen to the coronation of Alfonso VII strengthen the position of Urraca. Gave Urraca and Alfonso VII was crowned in 1111 in Santiago de Compostela. After the coronation, Gelmírez, the count of lock and went to Leon Urraca to overthrow Alfonso I, but he defeated them and forced them to take refuge in Galicia.

However, Magpie got the Galician nobility alliance with hermandiños and gathered an army to confront her husband. Carrion was found in both forces, and when the battle came the papal legate, which led to peace and the separation of marriage. But the opposite happened: Urraca and Alfonso I rejoined, leading to clashes between nobles instantly and supporters of Alfonso I in cities.

The situation changed again when Alfonso I tried to imprison his wife, who had to take refuge again in Galicia, where, with the support of Gelmírez, succeeded in entering Burgos. Following the 1114 Council of Leon, Alfonso I decided to submit to the Church and returned to their subjects Urraca, rejecting the option of returning to live together.

The divorce did not bring stability to the Castilian-Leonese kingdom, as the Counts of Portugal and Lock, as Gelmírez, now engaged to strengthen their domains against the kingdom. Queen Urraca acted first in Galicia, where he was trying to be recognized as one lady, but she had to face Gelmírez, whose power and his seat of Compostela had reached a major boost. Magpie won the support of citizens, which proposed to overthrow the prelate and implement a municipal government in Compostela layman. Santiago stated that citizens would be governed by a council.

Locking Count repudiated the location of the seat and began collecting primate troops and nobles began to round up citizens of Compostela. Meanwhile, Leon Gelmírez moved to deal with Urraca, who promised the recognition of its sovereignty and his son in exchange for helping to restore the previous situation in Compostela. The queen agreed, and went to Compostela with his army, entering the city Gelmírez company, while there was a rumor that the troops were preparing to break the law and condemn asylum and refugees. An uproar broke out that caused the entry of the mutineers in the bishop’s palace and the queen fled Gelmírez, who barely managed to escape the city. After you escape, the city capitulated and was confirmed Gelmírez heritage and succeeded by Pope Callistus II to the rise in metropolitan Santiago, replacing Merida, and his appointment as legate of the entire peninsula.

– The “Imperium” by Alfonso VII

In 1126 Urraca and Alfonso VII died inherited all the territories that had belonged to Alfonso VI, entitled “imperator” in the documents. And immediately sensed a war with Aragon for dominance of the enclaves that I took to be King Alfonso of Castile and Leon. But starting a war was unthinkable when the empire was crumbling Almoravid, so that both kings met and signed the Agreement of Tamara in 1127: Alfonso I reinstating the kingdom of Castile, but turning to the pre-1067 boundaries, is ie, recognizing the territories which incorporated Sancho II. Thus the Navarre and Aragon, Zaragoza won in length and strength. And Alfonso VII would only use the title “imperator.”

The heir of Alfonso VI was a broken empire: the Counts of Portugal had become independent while in Aragon, Navarre and Catalonia mighty princes ruled. Inside the factions among the noble lineages had created a state of uneasiness and restlessness. Alfonso VII decided that, in the first place was to regulate relations with Portugal.Between Teresa and her son Alfonso Henriques, the relations were of frank rupture. Teresa sought the support of his nobles to oust Alfonso. Leonese troops entered Portugal and supporters of Alfonso Enriquez paid feudal homage to Alfonso VII: Portugal remained as part of the Leonese monarchy and Alfonso Enriquez is recognized as legitimate out count of Portugal. Alfonso VII he married Berengaria, daughter of Ramón Berenguer III, and getting an alliance between Spaniards and Catalans.

After the death of Alfonso the Battler (1134) began a battle to see who inherited the kingdom of Aragon, which also intervened Alfonso VII. Alfonso VII claimed all the territories which once belonged to Alfonso VI of Castile, in addition, the Kingdom of Zaragoza was hers because it depended on the tribute Castilian conquest of Alfonso I had been as head of Castile. Alfonso VII resorted to arms to negotiate the basis of actual possession. Set out to Zaragoza, where Armengol hastened to negotiate with the Castilian king, giving him the city.

However, Pope Innocent II called on Alfonso VII to give the kingdom to the military orders, as stated in the will of Alfonso I. But for Alfonso VII the solution could be reached with the restoration and redefinition of the Empire Hispanic: thus in 1135 was crowned emperor. The parallels with the German monarch was evident. Alfonso VII was to consider the whole peninsula as a unit governing various kings, and all paid homage to only one feudal loyalty, Castile and Leon, the only one who recognized the supreme condition of the “imperium”.

In subsequent years, Alfonso VII had to fight because you recognize the Basque territories as their own, and in the coalition that formed Afonso Henriques de Portugal y García Ramírez of Navarre to open two fronts at the borders of Castile in 1137 that Emperor Castilian known address. In subsequent years, raids Portuguese and Castilian-Leonese in enemy territory were common, having to act in the war the papal legate, Guido de San Cosme, who got that leaders should meet in Zamora faced. There, Alfonso VII Alfonso recognized the right of Portugal to use the title of King in exchange for a feudal tribute of Portuguese on Astorga. With this performance, the papal legate got the new king of Portugal hiciese formal act of homage paid tribute to the Holy See.

In 1140 Alfonso VII and Ramón Berenguer IV met in Carrión which Navarro agreed to a deal: first of all Castile and Aragon would regain all the territories that once belonged to them, the rest would be divided between the two Crowns. In the war that ensued (1140-1145) Castile invaded Navarre, Pamplona coming to occupy, however, the offensive stalled before the Castilian marriage covenant between a bastard daughter of Alfonso VII, Urraca, with the King of Navarre, while establishing the marriage between the heir of Castile with the heiress of Navarre, Blanche.

In 1145, Alfonso VII and Ramón Berenguer IV of Navarre García Ramírez met to declare the complaints that separated them in order to establish an alliance against Islam. The Emperor proposed the project to take Almería. In an expedition with the participation of Italian ships, soldiers of the Emperor’s dominions and other peninsular monarchs, taking a firm awareness of the “Imperium hispanicum.” Almería surrendered in October 1147, shortly before that he should make Lisbon.

Later, in 1151, met the kings of Castile and Aragon in order to know whether or not to accept the new king of Navarre, Sancho VI.Alfonso VII and Ramón Berenguer IV denied the legitimacy of the new king of Navarre and agreed the distribution of the spoils of conquest, that is, Valencia, Denia and Murcia passed to depend on the rest of Aragon and Castile. The Tudején pact, as called for this meeting and what it was established, which would be delimited territorial structure Hispanic. Sancho VI was obliged to pay feudal homage to Alfonso VII, Rioja relented and agreed to the marriage of his sister Blanca Sancho III and the emperor’s daughter, Sancha, the king of Navarre.

Alfonso VII died in 1157, leaving the kingdom divided among his sons: Sancho III received Castile and Toledo, and Ferdinand II of León and Galicia. Abdicated Empire gave way to the era of the Five Kingdoms.

ITEM 6:

– Navarra and Aragon to Alfonso I the Battler.

– The conquest of Zaragoza.

– The complex succession.

– The formation of the Catalan-Aragon Crown.

The death of Sancho III the Great led to political divisions on either side of the border to turn the peninsula into a patchwork of small kingdoms. Sancho III divided his domains as follows: Garcia III Sanchez received Navarre, the kingdom expanded Rioja, Alava, Guipuzcoa and Vizcaya, Fernando received the county of Castile, Gonzalo received Sobrarbe and Ribagorza County, the bastard son, Ramiro, was County of Aragon, and become Ramiro I of Aragon.

– Navarra and Aragon to Alfonso I the Battler

Ramiro I was the first king of (-) y (-). ^[] Natural Son, King of. His illegitimate birth is known thanks to a story in which Ramiro is the only one of the sons of Sancho who helps his wife (including the children of this). She, pleased, adopts it as his son.

After the death of Sancho el Mayor, he inherited the throne by his eldest legitimate son, who ruled throughout father. His brother Ramiro, considered it a minor and was proclaimed king in the land he had received from his father to live with incomes throne in Jaca. Very soon clashed in the Battle of Ramiro Tafalla and began a new dynasty in the recent Kingdom of Aragon. Gonzalo, who governed the actual income and transferred the rights to his brother Ramiro I.

Ramiro Gisberda I married the daughter of the Count and, at the christening, was renamed Ermesinde. From this marriage was born, the future King of Aragon. Ramiro I died in the siege of Graus in 1063.

Sancho Ramírez (1063-1094) succeeded his father at the age of 18. Among his first actions was significant for the Muslims, in conjunction with, who died in the melee, although the following year, King of the reacted by requesting the help of all, calling the turn and back Barbastro to recover. Remember that was Barbastro northeastern district capital, and key to the rich valley of, in addition to hosting a major market. In Sancho Ramirez travels to consolidate the young Kingdom of Aragon offered in homage to Alexander II.

The King of Navarre, IV, cousin of Sancho Ramírez, was killed by his own brother Ramon, who in a hunting party he threw a high rock. Navarre, not wanting to be governed by the fratricide, was chosen as king Sancho Ramirez, who entered the crown of Aragon to Pamplona.

In felled the fields, built the fortress of Castellar, and later made tributary to the Muslim king of that city. In seized the castle, and ordered to restock. The conquest of the plain would ensure the construction of castles that served as shuttle and then protection of the conquered land. Sancho Ramirez built castles, Oban,,, Castiliscar … Etc.

In the year, having won, he gave this square with the title of king to his son Don Pedro, who was Earl of and.

To establish cordial relations with Castile, helped Alfonso VI at the Battle of () and in the defense of () and finally concluded a treaty of mutual assistance () to defend the sovereignty of the attack Almoravid Valencia. On the other hand, completed the circle of stronger and stronger, and ().

He died on the year with an arrow that was besieging. His body was taken to the monastery of Monte-Aragon, and later transferred to the.

His second wife was Ronci, which took the infant Don Fernando de Navarra, now.

Since 1094 Peter I of Aragon (1094-1104) was besieging Huesca, including the kingdom of al-Musta’in of Zaragoza. Fulfilling the agreement in a treaty with al-Musta’in, the Spaniards came to Huesca with reinforcements for the besieged, but were defeated Spaniards and Muslims, in 1096, resulting in the surrender of Huesca. The small Aragonese monarchy could put her foot on the plain.

Days later, both Castilian and Aragonese receiving aid request from Valencia, El Cid, is that Pedro El Cid and I were joined an alliance of personal affection. Castile and Aragon defeated the Almoravids in Bairén and slow the African offensive on Valencia.

The victories of Peter I succeeded, achieving, in 1101, the recovery of the Plaza de Barbastro. Until his death in 1104, Peter continued to fight against the Muslims, winning several seats on the plain. In that year, he was succeeded by his brother Alfonso I the Battler (1104-1134), who had to watch as the Almoravids were positioned near Zaragoza, the Aragonese desired and considered by the Spaniards as a protectorate territory.

– The conquest of Zaragoza

In 1107 Yusuf ben Tashfin died, the terrible old man who commanded the Almoravids, and said the military prowess of Alfonso I. This year, Alfonso I kept a pact of mutual assistance with Pedro Ansúrez, Councilor Alfonso VI, and advocate for the county of Urgell: Ansúrez had to request help from the King of Aragon to the threatening presence of the Almoravids.

The aim of the Aragonese king was very precise: Zaragoza, where al-Musta’in had failed to make contact with Yusuf ben Tashfin, convinced that their fate would be the same for all other Taifa. The Almoravids, owners of Valencia, were on the borders of the Taifa of Zaragoza, while the Aragonese, and Tauste Ejea owners, threatening the outer defenses of Zaragoza. Al-Musta’in be decided finally by Almoravid aid.

Alfonso I, coming from Huesca, and only Bárdenas and the Monegros, separating the Christian troops of Tudela and Zaragoza. Meanwhile, in Eastern Aragonese made their way towards Lerida.However, absent Alfonso I, because of their struggles against the Castilian nobles who opposed his election as Urraca’s husband, heir to Alfonso VI of Castile, al-Musta’in tried to regain his prestige by a brilliant military action : with his troops entered Navarre, reaching near Olite. But when he returned to Zaragoza, Aragon and Navarra troops met him, he defeated and killed in Valtierra (1110). His son, Abd al-Malik took over the command in a city in fear: in May of that year, the Almoravids took possession of Zaragoza.

Almoravid rule began to build among those who themselves were called al-Andalus a spirit of resistance that Africans did not want to become assistant to dominate.

However, in a long, fast journey from Galicia, Alfonso I appeared at two weeks of the conquest Almoravid outside the walls of Zaragoza, but could not take it. Now opened a period in which Alfonso I would be fully involved in the intricacies of nobility in Castile revolts against his authority. But once rid of these problems, after final separation with Urraca in 1114, could focus on preparing military action against Zaragoza and Lleida.

From the other side of the Pyrenees came to assist the brothers Centule and Gaston de Beam. In July 1117 could be formalized by the encirclement of Zaragoza. At the same time, Ramon Berenguer III attacked Lérida: this would arise as a conflict between Aragonese and Catalans in the future. Alfonso I, went to great lengths to seize a number of enclaves while from the Holy See encouraged the cross in the Peninsula, getting reinforcements Aragón French knights, Basques and Catalans. Almoravid Emir Ali ibn Yusuf, had sent substantial reinforcements to save Zaragoza. However, that aid was slow in the road, so that when he received the news that Alfonso I Aljafería controlled the city, the army was quick to reach the city. With the death of the commanding general of the quota Almoravid support, the morale of Muslims declined. From the inside I was asked Alfonso conditions of capitulation that he gave in a manner that can be considered very generous: the Muslims would be entitled to retain their property, their religion and even the structure of government paying the same taxes previously paid. In December 1118, Alfonso I Zaragoza entered declaring that the kingdom was incorporated in Aragon. Since then, the Aragonese sovereign rule were subjects of both religions.

But it remained to solve three problems: to attract settlers Christian peasants in sufficient number to reduce to the Muslim minority to take over the banks of the Ebro, upstream, and submit the orchards of Jalón which was the food reserve in the region.

In 1119 were enacted important privileges to the peasants who came to repopulate. With the conquests of Tudela, Tarazona and Borja in 1124 completed the domain of the Ebro and began expanding the line of Jalon.

In addition, the Aragonese secured a landslide victory against the Almoravids in Calatayud (1120) that caused a break in military prestige Almoravid. Since this victory, Alfonso I began to order the construction of important places that are moving in two lines of future expansion: Lerida and Valencia. It also created the Military Order of Belchite allowing military support in the kingdom.

After an expedition in aid of Granada Aragon, which allowed the looting and increasing the wealth of the King of Aragon, he returned with a bounty of 14,000 Mozarabic free to be used in the reforestation of Zaragoza.

– The complex succession

Alfonso I died in 1134 and in his will, lack of sons who inherit it referred to the Military Order, hospital and Templars, and their heirs: reinstating God as God, hoping to receive firm to serve as the amendment of its sins. The will showed an extraordinary religious spirit but also the total lack of sense of reality.

However, the Aragonese nobles meeting in Jaca, decided to break them asking Ramiro, his brother bishop of Burgos, Pamplona and Sahún, girt with the crown. Thus they advanced to the possibility that Garcia Ramirez, grandson of El Cid, King of Navarre, was proclaimed successor. García Ramírez commanded three major strengths (Monzón, Pueyo and Castejón) and plenty of available troops.

Ramiro II (1134-1137) came forward to stand as fact to the king of Aragon, and stated that he received the crown thinking about the good of the people, in order not to lose, and because it wanted to safeguard the freedoms of Church. But the Navarrese nobles rejected this application and recognized as king García Ramírez.

Alfonso VII also made claims as to all the territories that belonged to Castile in the reign of Alfonso VI had to be restored to them. Alfonso VII resorted to arms to negotiate on the basis of actual possession: Zaragoza started its march toward a large army and seized the city after its surrender in December 1134.

Ramiro II wanted to prove he was the rightful king of Aragon and quickly initiated negotiations to obtain an expensive church that would allow marriage and the heir to the kingdom that he needed. Also negotiated with Garcia Ramirez, who signed a pact meant continuity and the King of Navarre vicegerency Ramiro II and commanding the army to García Ramírez.

Pope Innocent II refused to Ramiro II immunity that he needed and urged to Alfonso VII to enforce the will of Alfonso I by delivery to the military orders. Soon after, the Count of Toulouse arranged the marriage of his niece, Agnes of Poitiers, with Ramiro II.

Moreover, in 1135, Ramiro II faced the proclamation of Alfonso VII as Emperor, and the alliance between him and Garcia Ramirez, who gave tribute to Navarre, after which the government would receive Zaragoza. However, did little García Ramírez and Alfonso VII and Ramiro II agreed to return to Aragon Zaragoza and a future marriage, as well as the removal of García Ramírez.

In 1136, García Ramírez negotiated an alliance with Alfonso Enríquez, Count of Portugal, who yearned for a desire to increase their domains, which both involved undertook to launch a military campaign against Castile. Besides, the marriage of Agnes and Ramiro Petronilla was born a girl, who fell in the inheritance of Aragon, the military orders then rushed to transfer their rights to the Count of Barcelona, Ramón Berenguer IV. Thus, it was agreed the marriage of Ramón Berenguer IV Petronilla, who had 24 years. In November 1137, Ramiro II abdicated in his son and returned to his monastery.

– The formation of the Catalan-Aragon Crown

Ramon Berenguer IV Petronila he married in 1150, becomingprinceps of Aragon, linking the House of Barcelona with the Kingdom of Aragon.

The first actions of Ramon Berenguer IV would be negotiations to secure the return of lands occupied by Castilian-Leonese troops to the deaths of his wife’s uncle. I also wanted to help reinstate the kingdom of the, territory that had become independent. In signed a pact of mutual support and withdrawal of the troops of Alfonso VII, in exchange for the allegiance of the count-Prince. Also performed a joint action against Navarre has no effect. In Alfonso VII and Ramón Berenguer IV signed, apart from renewing the partnership anti-Navarre, intended for distribution. So to the land reserve, and why would Ramón Berenguer pay tribute to Alfonso VII. Later, remember the new Castilian King Sancho III, which he gave to Alfonso, the son and successor of Ramón Berenguer IV, the kingdom of Zaragoza in exchange for the provision of vassalage.

After the death of Ramon Berenguer IV in 1162, the situation there was complicated ultrapyrenean. Ultrapyrenean policy or Occitan, was promoted by the relationship with his brother Ramon Berenguer, Count of Provence, that after his death, his son Ramon Berenguer was protected by the Count-Prince. This policy connected with the interests of the royal house of England, Henry II was Duke of Aquitaine. Following a meeting between both leaders, Catalonia and England came to settle in a community anti-French policy, this result of the agreement with England, led to Ramon Berenguer IV to seek the friendship of Frederick I Barbarossa, but died on the way to Turin.

Ramon Berenguer IV, in his will, left the Catalan counties to his son Alfonso Ramon, the territories of Béziers, Narbonne and Carcassonne to her youngest son Peter. But it should establish a regency since Alfonso Ramon was minor: it took Ramón Berenguer, Count of Provence. Also, add to the territories inherited by Alfonso the Kingdom of Aragon, as did Petronila resignation of his throne in his son, becoming Alfonso II of Aragon. Thus, Aragon and Catalonia would remain united forever.

ITEM 7:

THE RISE OF THE CROWN CASTLE AND THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY.

– The last separation Castilian-Leonese.

– The attempt of hegemony Leon Fernando II and Alfonso IX.

– The work of Alfonso VIII: Las Navas de Tolosa.

– The monarchy of Ferdinand III.

– The final reunification.

– The addition of Andalusia and Murcia.

–

Alfonso X

The splendor at the first signs of crisis.

– The last separation Castilian-Leonese

After the death of Alfonso VII the imperial idea disappeared. The fact that Castilian has been given to the firstborn shows that this kingdom was regarded as the most important. Although prefaced the title of King of Leon, Fernando II (1157-1188) was the center of their domains in Galicia, the seat of the spiritual head of the kingdom, while Sancho III (1157-1158) was done with the border territories between Cea and the Pisuerga River, as Medina del Campo or Avila.

Unlike what happened with the death of Ferdinand I, the heirs have not tried to destroy, but to be respected. Fernando II Fresneda left in the body of his father and ran to take possession of his kingdom. In Leon met with Alfonso Enriquez, very interested in the weakening of Castile, contrary to what he did Sancho, who never vindicate the unit. In this way, Christian Spain becomes a sphere of power jointly governed by five kings: Castile, Leon, Aragon, Navarre and Portugal.

All the kings tried to maintain this relationship with frequent links. The common task was to fight Islam, so that disputes also focused on the areas that each realm was limited and they struggled to defend and expand.

One thing that would change the defensive system against Islam would happen after the Templars abandoned the fortress of Calatrava they did not have enough strength to maintain it. Then was promoted a crusade and established a permanent garrison, subject to the discipline of a monastic military order. Thus born the Order of Calatrava in 1158.

After a mutiny arose in Zamora, Fernando Sancho III and II met in Sahún, where he signed an agreement that recognized only to Ramon Berenguer IV and his descendants as the legitimate sovereign, for Portugal had agreed a deal, and set limits future expansion against Islam.

– The attempt of hegemony Leon Fernando II and Alfonso IX

In August 1158 Sancho III died, leaving only one son, Alfonso VIII, born to Blanca de Navarra. The deceased had wanted to leave his side would guarantee a person of wisdom and chose Gutierrez Fernandez de Castro. But this appointment would fall the future political action Castilla noble disputes between Castro and Lara. The opposition of the Lara to any of the Castro government was very much alive, and was represented by Perez Manrique de Lara, the largest of the Castilian nobles. In the knot of new disputes that occurred was the claim of both Houses on Infantado Medina de Rio Seco, which Ferdinand II claimed for his kingdom. The Castro, fled to Leon for help, and Manrique de Lara was made with the child Alfonso VIII and took its guardianship and regency. Fernando II could not intervene until 1162, and using the title “Hispaniarium Rex”, which allowed the consolidation of Lara.

In 1162, Ferdinand II and invaded Castro Castilla without encountering much resistance. The Lara withdrew on Burgos and Soria, taking Alfonso VIII, but there was an agreement that Fernando was recognized ruler of Castile.

In a way the illusion could Fernando II of Leon superiority was established. The military force which was based on his claim was weak, his absence was enough to Ciudad Rodrigo Alfonso Enriquez invaded and occupied Salamanca. In 1163, tried to meet with Alfonso VIII so that he can pay homage, but Lara, indirectly, took him to Castle Gormaz. Shortly after the two kings appear together without the benefit homage.

Fernando knew he would be unable to establish its authority in Castile and initiated a maneuver to allow the two major lineages alone settle their quarrels. Fernando sought to adopt a defensive posture, strengthening relations with Navarre, whose queen was his sister Sancha, to create an alliance of stakeholders to prevent land claims Castilla. In 1169, Alfonso VIII was declared of age, but Lara continued conducting the affairs of government.

The abandonment of hegemonic Fernando II saw a clear trend to balance the Christian monarchs and even a brief period of peace. Alfonso Enriquez and Fernando II held an interview in Pontevedra and signed the Treaty of Lérez, agreeing to the marriage of King of Leon with the Portuguese Infanta Urraca. Moreover, Castilla peace with the loss Navarra several cities, including Logroño or Alava. And between Castile and Aragon relations were excellent and would remain so for a long time yet.

Fernando II saw as his kingdom, before the advance of Portugal and Castile, it became increasingly locked in their advance southward to the Muslim troops. Thus, when Alfonso Enriquez attacked Badajoz, and the Muslim garrison sought help from Fernando II, he did not hesitate to initiate the attack against the Portuguese, beating them and getting Cáceres, Trujillo and Monfragüe for the release of Portuguese count.

Ferdinand II died in 1188, and a dispute arose between his illegitimate son and his legitimate son Alfonso Sancho. Diego López de Haro refused to proclaim Sancho as king, and prevented the coup and Civil War, but not that Urraca, Sancho’s mother, seeking the protection of Alfonso VIII, who invaded León with his troops. But Alfonso IX (1188-1230) had the help of the nobility and the Church. The Lion King called a Curia in Leon in the first attended by attorneys representing towns and cities are the first cuts. The presence of the procurators of the cities was due to a major economic role, not a tax could be levied without the consent of those who had to pay. Two types of subsidies were treated in courts: the “petitum” or special allowance in case of war justified and that it should extend also to the great councils, and the “currency” that is, the Kings had the right to coin money and they exercised changing their alloys.

In exchange for subsidies had to admit claims whose answer gave rise to legal action. These demands are notebooks. In Leon, in 1188, were so important that some historians have called “Magna Carta Leon” “a whole. Alfonso IX swore to uphold the laws of the country submitting the opinion of the Curia all crimes, not accept individual complaints. The declaration of war or peace signs had to be exercised by the sovereign with the agreement of the three estates of nobles, bishops and citizens.

Alfonso VIII and Alfonso IX met and agreed to peace: the King of Castile did not return any of the places they occupied, and instead obtained a promise of marriage with the Infanta Alfonso IX of Castile and certain submission. Alfonso IX came to an extraordinary Curia convened Carrión, was knighted and kissed her hands, which meant a gesture of humiliation. This Carrion’s Curia, where he armed himself as knight Conrad of Hohenstaufen, Frederick Barbarossa’s son, promised to Berengaria, was the highlight of recovery process Castilian.

West, Leon entered the territory with the same objective: to seize the land.So, Leon finds himself surrounded between two sides that threatened its destruction. Alfonso IX, seeing the situation, realized the danger to his grave. Thus, to find a solution, used diplomacy and immediately began to seek support in Portugal. First he met and arranged a marriage with the Infanta Teresa, cousin of Alfonso IX, so that their marriage was forbidden. However, the marriage lasted three years, in which, had three children: Dulce, Fernando and Sancha. Fernando, unfortunately, died young, in the year 1214.

The wedding, for the reasons stated, did not please some clergymen, who are taking matters into briefed the Pope, who was labeled ruthless and incest marriage, later pronouncing a sentence of excommunication and interdict: excommunication affected Kings of Leon and Portugal, while the question affected both Kingdoms.

In a turbulent time, the Sancho I of Aragon counterpart proposed a pact to defend themselves. Alfonso II, fearing proposed to the Portuguese king that the pact is extended to and. The agreement between these four kingdoms was called the League of Huesca. The pact was an agreement by which any of the signatories kings go to war without the mutual consent. Alfonso IX, meanwhile, signed the treaty had little confidence in, who despite the agreement still did not restore the places that still retained Leon.

However, the Almohad threat prevented the allied de Huesca used to fund, also died, in 1194, Sancho VI of Navarre, and his successor, Sancho VII showed no enthusiasm for war. The pope intervened and secured the annulment of the marriage of Alfonso IX and Teresa and peace of Castile and Leon, which returned some enclaves Alfonso VIII.

Almohad army crossed the Straits in 1195, up the Guadalquivir valley and towards Calatrava. Alfonso VIII had Alarcos camp. The Battle of Alarcos (1195) stated clearly what was the real strength of the African empires, whose numerical superiority was overwhelming. The Almohad occupied the nearby castle after the battle.

Sancho Alfonso IX and VII Alarcos saw the defeat as an excellent opportunity to get revenge so many grievances of Castile. Alfonso IX succeeded in an alliance with the Almohad caliph to invade Castile Sancho VII while invading and plundering the lands of Soria and Medina. But when the Almohad retreating southward, Alfonso VIII launched a counteroffensive to Leon.

Pope Celestine III had to intervene, since the attitude of Leon and Navarre was a clear attack on the interests of Christianity. The pope excommunicated Alfonso IX and granted to those who would fight against Leon the same benefits as the Crusaders. The King of Portugal invaded Castile and decided to Galicia. But peace was reached: It was agreed the marriage of Alfonso IX Berengaria, she who was betrothed to Conrad of Hohenstaufen. It was hoped that Celestino III came into the path of the waivers, the Five Kingdoms considered essential to maintain unity among them. But the new pope, Innocent III, denied the waiver and even tried to get the separation of spouses. While trying to achieve separation of marriage and four children were born. Finally, the Pope got the separation of marriage, but this was the only guarantee of peace, and their separation would have serious problems.

– The work of Alfonso VIII: Las Navas de Tolosa

Alfonso VIII (1158-1214) had used the years of friendship with Leon to try and recover Basque: and did so thanks to a pact with Peter II of Aragon to divide the kingdom. In 1199, all Alava and Guipuzcoa were handed over to Alfonso VIII, who began an intense repopulation and granting privileges. The incorporation of Castile meant Basque obtaining a coastline and confinement to Navarre, and had had border Castilla Gascony, dowry of Eleanor, wife of Alfonso VIII.

Alfonso VIII entertained the idea of claiming the dowry of his wife and favored the French approach to such claims. At a peace meeting between Philip II Augustus and John Lackland, was also agreed to the marriage of the French heir, Louis, Blanche of Castile, daughter of Alfonso VIII. Upon the death of Leonor, Alfonso VIII claimed the duchy of Gascony, with a consequent opposition of John Lackland: Alfonso VIII invaded the territory, but did not occupy the ports of Bordeaux Bayot and therefore had to accept the impossibility of mastering the duchy.

The separation of Alfonso IX and Berengaria brought new difficulties between Castilla, Leon and Portugal. I got the friendship Sancho de Castilla to agree on the marriage of his son Alfonso to Urraca, daughter of Alfonso VIII. However, the protection accorded the Church had brought difficulties. The power of the bishops had grown dramatically and the emerging bourgeoisie struggled to crush. In the end, the power of the bishops was confirmed, and Alfonso II would pay with the crown. On the other hand, between Castile and Leon also peace was restored: the Treaty of Cabrera (1206) made Castilla had a new heir, Fernando, son of Berengaria.

The Almohad army came from Marrakech in February 1211 and made a very slow start. Nearly four months later, the South African army began its offensive of Castile, where Alfonso VIII had issued orders to suspend the work of fortification in the cities and concentrate in Toledo for Pentecost, 1212. The start of preparations, Alfonso VIII received the news of the death of the heir Fernando, but even so, continued its policy of seeking support in the defense of Christianity, signing a cooperation pact with Peter II of Aragon and gentlemen South of France. Only Alfonso IX remained outside the general enthusiasm, claiming lands on the border of Campos.

Despite its international flavor, the company was predominantly Castilian. Toledo was the headquarters and point of concentration of wealth that was taken from churches and monasteries. Was estimated at 70,000 men and 250,000 met the Army of Muslims, but it certainly meets two armies so numerous, but one thing: never had faced two armies so large and the numerical superiority lay with the Almohads.

The Crusaders under the command of Diego López de Haro, Catalans and Aragonese with Peter II of Aragon and Alfonso VIII of Castile, formed the Christian army. In June 1212 the operations were initiated to recover Calatrava, who took in a few days, allowing families to leave unharmed, prompting opposition from the Crusaders who left the army to feel cheated. Castellanos, Aragonese and Catalans, Leonese and Portuguese groups that grew, gave the cross a Spanish monopoly. In addition, before the meeting, troops arrived Sancho VII of Navarre with the head.

On July 12, 1212 took place the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, which was decided with the help of a pastor who led the way, ride through, to round up the Africans: Alfonso VIII threw what was left of his army against the Almoravids at the end of the day, destroying them and starting the withdrawal of the Almoravids. Christians burst into the high Guadalquivir, taking several cities, burning and destroying Baeza Ubeda, after the beginning of the Christian retreat.

Alfonso VIII died two years later, but never stopped fighting against Muslims, who returned to the charge by the Guadalquivir valley, signing a treaty of joint struggle against Islam with Alfonso IX and Alfonso II of Portugal: Coimbra Treaty guaranteed for an equitable western kingdoms, as Cazola Tudején and guaranteed in the East.

– The monarchy of Ferdinand III

A fortunate series of strange circumstances and agreed to make Ferdinand, son of Alfonso IX and Berengaria, the recipient of the inheritance of both crowns.

– The final reunification

The death of the eldest son of Alfonso VIII, Fernando, left no other heir Henry. After the death of Fernando, another son of Alfonso VIII, he proclaimed himself as the successor to Henry I (1214-1217), which came under the regency of Berengaria. This very wise, he agreed to leave the regency under the Count of Lara oath to abide by strict limitations: not to make war, give or take land to vassals and levy taxes, without her consent.

In 1216, Alfonso IX and Henry I met in Toro, following the exhortations of the Lateran Council that should cease any hostilities in the next four years, to turn his effort against the Muslims. But, Alvar Nunez de Lara military attacked the possessions of Henry I. Berengaria then asked her ex-husband, Alfonso IX, the succor, sending a small contingent deployed along Toro Núñez de Lara was also Henry Toro, and died there. Berengaria became the successor.

Quickly went to Valladolid and there made the possession and renunciation of power to his son, Ferdinand III (1217, which was proclaimed King of Castile. Leonese troops immediately invaded Castile and advanced to Valladolid, where Fernando III and Berengaria had to fled to Burgos. In late 1217 the truce was signed: Fernando recognized his father’s ownership of several enclaves Castilians took care of the debt claimed Alfonso IX to Henry I and guaranteed property and estates to the House of Lara.

Fernando III resumed the fight against the Almohad caliph after the death of Yusuf II in 1224, nullifying the truce between the two states. Pacification of Castile, the rapid disintegration of the Almohad Empire and the emergence of a new phase of the Taifa kingdoms allowed Fernando III help a Muslim rebel against the Empire, who took possession of Jaén, Granada and Cordoba. Meanwhile, Fernando III also signed the truce with the Empire in exchange for a large sum of money.

The Will of Alfonso IX, who died in 1230, left the crown to Sancha and Dulce, the daughters of his first marriage, and Ferdinand III. This, warned by his mother Berengaria, suspended operations and rushed to León, claiming his inheritance. Both showed their willingness heirs of harmony and peaceful resolution. Fernando III was recognized as king, giving his sisters flood damages that were fulfilled exactly. Thus, the crown of León and Castilla returned to join to be separated anymore.

– The addition of Andalusia and Murcia

At the same time undertook decisive military operations on all fronts: Portugal, Extremadura, the Guadalquivir Valley and Valencia.In 1232, all Christian kings adopted far-reaching strategic plans, with the support of the military orders. Fernando III concentrated his troops in Toledo, having pacified León, where he released a first offense that would Baeza, opening the door of the Guadalquivir. In these years the Knights Templar moved southward, taking the vast land of democrats, while the Order of Santiago, the most important, took strategic places such as Trujillo, Montiel, Medellin, Santa Cruz.

Fernando III, who was in Burgos, in 1236, learned of the Christian conquest of the suburb of Cordova, and quickly led a contingent that would come to town to see how surrendered in June of that year: Fernando III became his mosque in cathedral and ordered the bells to bring Almanzor from Santiago to return to Galicia. The king returned to Castile continued to receive reports of Castilian conquest of Cordoba by the frank, very rich.

The next target would be Fernando III Seville, which would surrounded by the continuous campaigns to wrap their territory. But neither lost sight of Murcia, reserves recognized by the treaty of Cazola. Established at the request of the Taifa, a protectorate in hopes of carrying out the immediate annexation. The camp was free, as James I had to go to Montpellier suffering French siege. But the Castilian king could not go to Andalusia and Murcia, due to the revolt of Diego Lopez de Haro and severe disease, which was to send his heir Alfonso to take Murcia.

The annexation of Murcia (1243) was no more difficulty than the resistance they offered the wardens of Lorca, Cartagena and Mula, cities that had to be submitted next year by the Master of Santiago, Paio Peres Correia. Immediately after the capture of Murcia, the Spaniards moved westward with the intention of seizing Játiva, but James I of Castile entered by Villena. The war took place between Castile and Aragon by the Treaty of Almizra (1244) by which the border between the two kingdoms was set at a line that starts from the port of Biar, in the interior, reached the coast between Altea and Villajoyosa current . Alicante Castilian was as a port. This treaty was extremely favorable to castilla, with enormous Mediterranean area and further away to the Crown of Aragon reconquer task that soon became Castilian monopoly.

In Sevilla, after the provision of the Almohad Caliph vassalage to Castile, the city council took the decision to declare a subject of the King of Tunis. Then the Christians began to reduce the domain of Seville, first with the destruction of the ships that would help to Seville and then isolating the city by sea. By land, the Castilian troops gradually entered the city. After lengthy negotiations, the city surrendered Muslims being forced to leave. In November 1248 the castle was raised in the royal standard, and Ferdinand III made his entry a month later. In the following years, the Castilian troops occupied both banks of the Guadalquivir River to its mouth.

The Reconquista was over, only Castilla had borders with Islam and the occupation of the last remnants of Al-Andalus seemed to be his exclusively. The annexation of Seville, Jaén, Córdoba and Murcia over the allegiance of the kingdoms of Granada and Fog, Castilla made one of the first powers of Europe, owner of densely populated and intensely cultivated extensive Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines. Its total hegemony in the peninsula seemed logical.

– Alfonso X: the splendor at the first signs of crisis

First, say that in 1250 Frederick II died, the last emperor of this dynasty, giving rise, after the early death of his son Conrad, the period of the Great Interregnum. The leadership of the House Ghibelline happened then to the children of Beatrice of Swabia and Fernando III, ie, Alfonso X.

In 1252 died Fernando III and Alfonso X was up to the Castilian throne and soon was launched with the intention to increase their territories, claiming the Portuguese Algarve, the Duchy of Gascony and the throne of Navarre. Intense diplomatic activity allowed Alfonso X build an entire system of alliances: married his illegitimate daughter to Alfonso III of Portugal and his sister Leonora home with Edward I of England.

Theobald I of Navarre sought support from grassroots level by continuing to grant charters to undertake Sancho VII and tried to increase the influence of France. This slow inclination of Navarre to the French orbit had to raise suspicion of Castile. Also caused fear of his own nobility in Navarre. But it would be with Theobald II would be achieved with the provision of Navarra homage to Castile, making the small Pyrenean kingdom a protectorate of Castile.

Shortly thereafter, an embassy of Pisa, came to the Peninsula to offer Alfonso X the help of this republic in the pursuit of rights that belonged to the Empire and beg that she would adopt at the head of the Ghibellines in Italy side. The ambassadors of Pisa sought, inter alia, a mediation Castilian alliance for Marseille, which was achieved in 1256.

It signed the pact with Pisa: Alfonso X riders promised to send ambassadors to Italy and would be recognized as head of the Ghibellines in Tuscany side. In addition, privileges granted to the Pisan merchants on the coasts of Castile in exchange for naval support in Africa and Italy.

A man of confidence of Alfonso X was sent to Germany to buy the votes for the election of imperial Castilian monarch: getting the support of the Archbishop of Trier and three other voters (king of Bohemia, Duke of Saxony and Brandenburg Marquis), while Count Palatine of the Rhine and the archbishops of Cologne and Mainz supported Richard of Cornwall, brother of the king of England. While voters gathered in Frankfurt, both sides declared their candidates. And is that both voters had an absolute majority because a voter, the bohemian, had powers to both sides simultaneously.

Alfonso X squandered a lot of money to secure the loyalty of supporters who held the cause of Alfonso in Germany. These outlays were the cause of unrest in Castile, and soon the courts were declared contrary to the claims of the king. Moreover, Pope Alexander IV soon change criterion, for the Spanish side were in favor of the Ghibellines, who experienced a dangerous growth. Therefore, Alfonso X sent an embassy to Rome to get the Pope to assuage suspicions about his Ghibellinism. Meanwhile, Manfred, King of Sicily and Naples, the son of Frederick II, brought together the Ghibellines defeated the Florence Guelphs and aspired to rule all of Italy. Alexander IV promised to respect the Spanish justice.

Before the advance of the Ghibellines, the Pope had no other choice but to put in the hands of France offered to Charles of Anjou the crown of Naples. San Luis is opposed, the Catalans showed fighting spirit: the marriage of a daughter of Manfred, Constance, with Pedro Infante, become firstborn.

1262 Alfonso X, with support from the Genoese, displayed a growing hostility against Manfredo. Urban IV, French pope, was concerned about preventing Castilla England side would join the Ghibellines. So I was determined not to favor or Ricardo Alfonso, leaving the issue dragged.

Pope Urban IV showed an open bias towards France and Charles of Anjou signed an agreement that recognized him as king of Sicily. In 1264, the arbitral award in the suit of the Empire, were present only in Rome prosecutors of Alfonso X, and the Holy See granted a new deadline. However, the ascension to the throne of St. Peter of Clement IV caused the pope does not believe in the realization of the rights of the King of Castile.

Meanwhile, in the Peninsula, the control of the Strait, the campaigns against Islam, the shocks of the nobility and bourgeoisie in Catalonia and the inheritance of James I absorbed the attention of peninsular monarchs.

Alfonso X prepared with the help of Aragon, an expedition to Africa that started in 1260 with the aim of getting loot and intended to keep the place of Sale, where the Spanish were attacked Prince Marinids Ya’qub. Almost immediately had to begin operations against the Kingdom of Fog, who succumbed in 1262. Cadiz was probably taken the same year, which would eliminate the Muslim kingdom and Granda to become the last stronghold of Islam in the peninsula. In 1263-1264 he had to deal with the great revolution of the subject in Moorish Andalusia and Murcia: supported by Muhammad I had taken several key points and almost get hold of Alfonso X in Seville. But the revolt of the nobility muladí in Granada, Muhammad I fought on two fronts, since the Christians came together and managed to recover the lost territories: Alfonso X able to regain Andalusia and Murcia Jaime I, which produce the settlement of many families Catalan .

The deep malaise of the nobility for the expenditure made by the “Empire” for senile dementia of James I and the little help to the Catalan Mediterranean interests led to a long conflict between the nobility and monarchs. In economics, there was also growing mismatch between expenditure and income sources were not developed, along with rising prices, taxes and currency devaluation.

Leading the opposition was noble Philip, brother of Alfonso X. At a meeting in Lerma with Lope Díaz de Haro, the initial pretext of the demand of the Empire by Alfonso X, then renunciation of allegiance to Portugal due to the Algarve. In addition, Philip joined güelfismo triumphant in Europe. In discussions of Burgos of 1271 reform proposals in two areas: one, the suspension of concessions beneficial to migrant farmers to Andalusia, as this will adversely affect the economy of the nobles, and two, that law enforcement officials , merino and judges, did not interfere with the manorial rights.

Two events led to the disastrous Alfonso X about his noble condescension. First, the open rupture with Charles of Anjou and how Guelph policy meant to coincide with Prince Pedro of Aragon, the future Peter III. The second event was the death of Richard of Cornwall in 1272, which reduced the number of candidates only Alfonso. Although the new pope, Gregory X, was not at all favorable to her claims, Alfonso X decided to make an effort and made a pact with his nobles: agreed to reduce from six to four years of my service to collect and nobles were invited exiles to return. The Ecumenical Council of Lyon in 1273, the Pope rejected the claims of Alfonso X and confirmed as German Emperor and King of Germany to Rudolf of Habsburg.

Alfonso X had to cope with the death of his heir, Fernando de la Cerda, who posed a succession problem. According to the custom of Castile, the throne should fall to the second son, Sancho. But in compiling legislation of the Parties, not enacted into law, had admitted the right of representation: the father died, the sons succeed to the rights, namely: Fernando’s sons would inherit the kingdom. But Alfonso X hastened to proclaim to Sancho as his heir.

Navarra also happen in a clash between Spaniards and French for control of the kingdom after the death of Theobald II in 1270. The kingdom was inherited by his brother Henry I, who died three years later, leaving the throne vacant and starting six years from a severe crisis in Navarra. Juana, daughter of Blanche of Artois, niece of Louis IX and married to Henry I, was the repository of the rights of succession of Henry I. Alfonso X was then called old claims over the kingdom. But Blanche of Artois reached an agreement with Philip III, transferring to it the regency on the promise of marriage with the eldest Jane French. However, Alfonso X went ahead and invaded Navarre, as Philip III had to organize an occupying army that defeated the Castilians in renounces (1277), after which negotiations began between the two monarchs, opposed the infant Sancho : in Bayonne agreed to establish a kingdom for infants Jaén Cerda acting under the protection of Philip III. This decision was made in the Cortes of Seville in 1281, with a consequent opposition of Sancho and the procurators of the cities.

Thus, the outbreak of the revolt in Castile Sancho Cortes in Valladolid summoned to defend the unity of the territory by the will of the sovereign could not be split. Alfonso X was suspended from his functions and Sancho was recognized as governor-general of Castile. Civil War erupted when Alfonso X disinherited Sancho, using Martin IV to ask him to ecclesiastical censures pronounced against supporters of Sancho. Sancho needed support of the nobility, and so he married Maria de Molina and agreed to the marriage of his sister Violante with Diego López de Haro. The war between Sancho and the king led to the death of Alfonso X in 1284, he left in his will as heir to his grandson Alfonso de la Cerda, if offspring died if the Crown would go to the king of France, and also were segregated two kingdoms, Seville and Badajoz to Don Juan, and Don Jaime Murcia. But end the reign of Sancho IV.

* Why is it important Alfonso X? *

Feudalism existed in the ideological order with three functions: the knight fights, the peasant works and clergy pray. But when shown the merchant and the cities, the revolutionary feudalism, and destabilizes the merchant that order. Alfonso X, like other kings of the time, money and military needs, the foundation of their monarchy and power. The Court is composed by the nobility, the church and cities, the latter were those that could provide the money and the military. In addition, Alfonso X and inherit get multiple realms to conquer, each with its laws, but the Castilian king cortes convoked only for its entire domain, being seen the future central government XV and XVI century.

On the other hand, was a king Alfonso X repopulating it was a major role after expelling the Muslims from Seville, Mule or Cartagena. The restocking was a system of border protection and, for the mission, established settlers, soldiers fighting to defend their land (for an example similar to the expansion of the Greek polis in the Mediterranean). Castilla is imposed in the area of the Peninsula through a Corona-based strong councils, which benefited from its charter. Christianity is imposed by the Church, that is, through the dioceses.

The distribution of land is between those who want to settle in the given territory, but reserves the king a series of land to donate to whomever: donadios or large tracts of land. These donadios were given to individuals, the Church or the military orders. The main function was to carry many small owners to have a larger army and usually down tenements among participants in the conquest.

In conclusion, Alfonso X consolidates the achievements of the thirteenth century, is of great importance in the Mediterranean fleet due to continued expansion in North Africa. It imposes modernity from the legal field (speculum, Fuero Rea and parties), history (First General Chronicle), legislative and fiscal (the king makes the laws and taxes); get extend the Castilian language and be Emperor Spain, as all kings owed allegiance except Aragon.

TOPIC 8:

THE EXPANSION DELLA CORONA Catalonia and Aragon.

– The policy Occitane Pedro II of Aragon.

– Mediterranean Politics: James I and his conquests Peninsula.

– Including the Balearic Islands and Valencia.

– The policy Occitane Pedro II of Aragon

Pedro II of Aragon (1196-1213) stands out as the first King of Aragon received the crown from Pope Innocent III, who received permission from then onwards for the archbishop of Tarragona could crown the kings of the Crown of Aragon always with the permission of the Pope, and tipping over in a policy-induced or Occitan ultrapyrenean marriage policy, who joined the King of Aragon with Marie of Montpellier and his sister Eleanor to the Count of Toulouse, for the defense of the interests of the territories vassals of the Crown (Béziers and Carcassonne) and aid to the Cathars of Albi, or Albigenses, in its struggle against France and the Papacy.

Catalan-Aragonese policy will be influenced by the dream of dominating and conquering Occitania Balearic Islands and Valencia. As to the question Albigensian Pedro II that was never the intention of sponsoring or defending the heretics, on the contrary, the papal legates gave its full support. His interest was focused on keeping the political bloc of the Rhone-Ebro. All actions of the monarch, in the early years of the thirteenth century led to the strengthening of positions, hence the marriage policy carried out. Moreover, the maintenance of an active policy in Languedoc was producing major changes in the financial regime of Catalonia and Aragon, the Count of Barcelona had become unprofitable.

Raymond VI of Toulouse ways opposed the pope’s fight against heretics, and in 1208, the papal legate, Pierre de Castelnau, was murdered by a gentleman Toulouse. Thus, the new papal legate, Arnold Amaury, decided to preach the crusade against the heretics. Pedro II was in a terrible situation: would have to choose between the fulfillment of the promises made to Innocent III or defense of the dreams of unity Occitane.

This was at the time of death Armengol VIII, Count of Urgel, in which the Count of Barcelona could gather all the Catalan land in your hand. Meanwhile, the Crusaders had already been launched in 1209, Peter II began receiving requests for assistance from Foix, Béziers and Carcassonne: the doubts of the Aragonese king allowed the Crusaders to take Béziers and Carcassonne in the same year.

Pedro II was launched at a company desperate to bring peace and prevent renewed fighting. He agreed that Simon de Montfort, leader crossed, had the manor of Béziers and Carcassonne, with allegiance Catalan applauded the decision of Raymond VI of moving to Rome to make the pope a fairer deal. The demands of the councils of Saint Gilles (1210) and Montpellier (1211) were not accepted by Raymond VI and prepared to resist the Crusaders. In the view of Montpellier in 1211, Pedro II made a last effort to save their interests by agreeing to the marriage of his heir, James, a daughter of Simon de Montfort, who now had custody of the infant Aragon. But Simon continued their advance and took possession of Gascony and Bearn, closing the circle around Toulouse.

The last attempt at negotiation failed, and Raymond VI, Gaston de Bearn and the counts of Foix and Comminges made tribute to the King of Aragon: the latter had no choice but to declare war. Insufficient financial support of Catalonia was one of the reasons that caused the Aragonese army, less numerous, were crushed in Muret (1213), where Pedro II was killed.

With the death of Peter II Occitan resistance was hit very hard, also died shortly after Mary of Montpellier. Their son, James, from 1211 was under the protection of Simon de Montfort, as Ramon Berenguer, heir to Provence. But Innocent III ordered Simon to deliver the king to his subjects. In Lérida (1214), an assembly of notables Aragonese and Catalans decided to recognize the infant Sancho as attorney general of the kingdom, aided by a council appointed by the Pope. Despite the opposition to continue the policy Occitan, Prince Sancho decided to form an army and sending it against Toulouse, who recovered in 1217, killing Simon de Monfort. Then, the new Pope, Honorius III, James I threatened with censorship and noble spiritual and temporal punishments if they did not cease their actions in the south of France, in this way, the infant was withdrawn from the Languedoc Sancho and resigned. Power is now collecting the Infante Don Fernando, Montearagón abbot, who, with the help of several nobles, wanted to limit the authority of the king and the establishment of a Council. The war in Aragon began with the failure of Albarracín site by James I, who received the advice to focus on the fight against Islam, thinking that a joint venture would overcome the divisions.

– Mediterranean Politics: James I and his conquests Peninsula

Before his fight against Islam, Jaime I had to deal with the conflicts generated in his own kingdom, little by little, succeeded in pacifying the recovery of Zaragoza, Huesca and Jaca, and told the prince Fernando Alcalá agreement (1227), which consumed the king’s victory over the noble support in Catalonia, which would become the core of the Crown.

The signing of the Treaty of Corbeil in 1258, which involved the acceptance of limits border with France very unfavorable, is considered the biggest mistake of James I. However, for Catalonia was a decisive shift in its policy, which was oriented more toward the mainland and the Mediterranean. The signing of the treaty involved the surrender Catalan ultrapyrenean all domains except Montpellier, Roussillon and Cerdanya.

– The incorporation of Mallorca and Valencia.

The prize for loyalty to the King of Aragon was Catalonia Mallorca: nest of pirates which was the main obstacle to developing relations with Italy. At the Cortes of Barcelona of 1228 was decided to undertake an expedition, embracing the company with enthusiasm and a huge fleet of 150 ships was concentrated in Salou 1229. The Kingdom of Aragon stayed away.

The first Muslim forces easily dispersed. Two columns marched on Palma and scored a great victory. Blocked by land and sea, the capital three months resisted: it was taken by assault at dawn on December 31, 1229. The next day James I granted the full freedom of trade locals throughout the island.

Just over a year late in submitting the rest of the island where Catalan was introduced and Usages. Submission was achieved in 1231 Menorca and Ibiza in 1235.

On the Peninsula, Aragonese and Catalans advanced southward conquering Burriana, Peniscola, Chisvert and Cervera in 1233, and James I took the following year, Castellón de la Plana with all its towns and fortresses. But the Aragonese some time suspended their offensive because James I had to face the conflict of Navarre after the death of Sancho VII, the defense of Carcassonne against the king of France and her marriage to Violante of Hungary, which promised to provide kingdoms to their children in Mallorca and new conquests.

Following these setbacks, in 1237 resumed attacks against the kingdom of Valencia, very easily take several enclaves in the kingdom. In April of 1238 Valencia was besieged and had cut off his communications with the sea. Months after the city surrendered, by Jaime I check in October.

Valencia joined the Crown of Aragon as a new member, the fourth. James I gave in principle the Jurisdiction of Aragon, but most of the settlers had Catalan origin, and protests. The King seized this occasion to give out again independent in 1240. The Aragonese were beginning to feel a minority within a kingdom that bears his name.

However, further south, the issue remained unresolved the kingdom of Murcia, which was resolved with the Treaty of Almizra in 1244, which fixed the border between Aragon and Castile.

ITEM 12:

THE CROWN OF CASTILE IN THE XIV CENTURY.

– The Kingdom of Castile at the time of Maria de Molina.

– The monarchy of Alfonso XI.

– The actual building process. The Land of Alcalá.

– The Battle of the Strait.

– The continuation of an idea: Pedro I.

– The war against Aragon.

– The Kingdom of Castile at the time of Maria de Molina.

At the time of the death of Sancho IV (1284-1295), the Infante Don Juan, Uncle Lope Díaz de Haro, Lord of Vizcaya executed by order of the king, claimed the crown for himself, getting the recognition Dinis of Portugal. Another child, Henry, asked the regency of the boy king Ferdinand IV. Diego López de Haro returned to Vizcaya where would revolt. The two neighboring monarchies, Aragon and Portugal, gave encouragement to all of these concerns because they saw on occasion to amend the territorial proportions favorable to Castile.

In this situation, Maria de Molina, widow of Sancho IV, called the Cortes in Valladolid (1295) where the boy king entrusted to the fidelity of the procurators of the cities. Preserving its custody, gave the regency to Prince Henry. Castilla was now surrounded by enemies: Don Juan arrived at Palencia, where Cortes convened, James II attacked the kingdom of Murcia, the Portuguese troops moving up the Duero, and Alfonso de la Cerda came to Sahagun, where he was proclaimed king.

Regent Don Enrique majority ahead of King at age 14 in order to weaken the authority of the young sovereign away the shadow of Maria de Molina. Three actions inspired the Regent: avoid war with Aragon completed in order to maintain the state of tension and justify requests for money to the Cortes, cast doubt on the legitimacy of the marriage of Sancho IV and the rights of your child to crown and, finally, to suggest the weak Fernando IV that his mother kept artificially low protection when the conditions had to govern.

It was urgent to restore the unity of command. Not only in Murcia, where Aragon was growing influence, but also in Andalusia, where the Spaniards were kept on the defensive against Marinids Muhammad Muhammad II and III. Besides, in the interior of Castile, the nobility was divided: the Lara and the Infante Don Juan against the de Haro and Prince Henry.

Undoubtedly, the coronation of Ferdinand IV restored peace on all fronts. The death of the infant Don Henry removed a major obstacle. Fernando Dinis and confirmed their friendship, while Muhammad III signed a peace treaty (1302) giving up several seats won in the war. A truce was signed with Aragon, Castile made a huge sacrifice by withdrawing its territorial boundaries to a line roughly coincides with the current division of the provinces of Murcia and Alicante: Cartagena, Alicante, Elche, Orihuela and Villena fell within the Crown of Aragon . After James II renounce Cartagena for Don Juan Manuel Alarcón surrender to the King of Castile. Alfonso de la Cerda abdicated their rights in exchange for a large manor.

However, peace brought new divisions and disputes among the nobility who ruled Castile. The Infante Don Juan claimed the lordship of Vizcaya, occupied by Diego Lopez de Haro: there was a war that ended in truce (1306), agreeing to both parties bring their dispute to court. In Valladolid met such courts, ruling that, after the death of Diego López de Haro, the estate would go to Don Juan.

At the Cortes of Burgos in 1315 are recorded as a complete project echoed the recoquista throwing the Islam of the Peninsula. Delayed thousand times, yet persisted in the consciousness of the community as a sort of sacred obligation. But in the Cortes of Madrid of 1309 perceived the main difficulty: the war of Granada was expensive. Granada, thoroughly exploited by the Genoese, gateway to Africa and silk production, enjoyed a reputation for opulent, and the works performed during those years in the Alhambra Muhammad III as warranted.Thus, again raised the battle of the Strait, but in original terms, ie from 1306, having taken possession of Ceuta, Muhammad III was the owner of both banks. Then he extended his domain to Gomera. In 1304, troops had entered Granada has Crevillente, and in 1308 a fleet besieged Muslim Alicante, Javea and Denia. Fernando IV and James II held a meeting at which they decided to take joint action.

Las Cortes de Madrid provided the means to undertake the siege of Algeciras, which began in August 1309. An Aragonese army and navy, in which James II was himself, appeared in Almería. These events provoked a popular revolt that forced Granada Muhammad III to abdicate in his brother Nasr. The new king was in the middle of a terrible threat, because the Marinids alliance joined the Castilian-Aragonese and Catalan with vessels, undertook the siege of Ceuta.

Granada Negotiations led to the signing of the peace in Algeciras (1310): Nasr returned the rest of the cities conquered in the past, returning to the Castilian vassals, were paid twelve thousand doubloons of gold annually as outcasts and gave assurances of freedom to traders . However, the understanding with Castilla caused the discontent on the part of the Muslim nobility, making Nasr request the assistance of Ferdinand IV, who died when marching on Granada. The Chronicle contains a legend that attributes the death to a “site” that certain men, Carvajal, executed on suspicion of murder, had spoken about the king. Would end up abdicating in Nasr Isma’il, son of Arraez of Malaga.

The death of Ferdinand IV of Castile caused continuous disturbances for thirteen years. There were now two distinct parties: the Infante Don Pedro, brother of Ferdinand IV, who was trying to save the principle of authority, and the Infante Don Juan clearly defending the dominance of the nobility. Again Valladolid became the political center to Maria de Molina., Who had joined his son Peter. The nobles, imitating it to the cities, began to organize themselves into brotherhoods, while Don Juan is attracted to Queen Constance and Don Juan Manuel. A portion of the Regents recognized Dona Maria de Molina as regent and her son king.

The understanding reached in 1313 (views Palazuelos). Graduates guardians would be in the places they had recognized. As Don Juan Manuel neutral element would steward. Council entered the Infante Don Felipe. The agreement was facilitated by the death of Queen Constance. In the second view of Palazuelos, a year later, the infant Don Juan and Don Pedro were recognized guardians, along with Maria de Molina. The Cortes of Burgos in 1315, not only approved this agreement, but two letter sorority, one of the councils as institutions, one of the knights and nobles of towns and cities.

But the crisis was expected to be revived soon, and that in a new offensive against Granada, the two infants Alfonso guardians of the boy king died (1319). María de Molina stepped forward to assume the regency was saying completely fall upon agreement of the Parliament of Burgos. The Andalusian city attorneys agreed to sign peace with the king of Granada. María de Molina died in June 1321, prompting Castilla takes over the most frightful anarchy during the next four years. Castilla broke Andalusia, Leon and Galicia supported the Infante Don Felipe, and the Infante Don Juan, the Eye, and Don Juan Manuel joined forces against Prince Philip.

By 1325, the year of population and food crisis, the power of the Castilian monarchy hit its lowest point. At every corner in every city, emerging independent powers. In contrast, the Aragonese expansion in the Mediterranean was maximized by James II, and maturity of Portugal Dinis accentuated the imbalance.

– The monarchy of Alfonso XI

The restoration of the authority begins in Castilla before elsewhere. In 1325, Alfonso XI (1325-1350) was declared of age, succeeding the party of the Infante Don Felipe, finally. In Portugal, Alfonso IV would make a continuous display of authority over Castile and the Portuguese nobility. In Aragon, Alfonso IV became a Guelph due to French influence, earning, in addition, the Catalan nobility.

– The actual building process. The Land of Alcalá

To end the crisis that began in Portugal, Alfonso IV Alfonso XI and agreed to the marriage of the first with a second daughter named Mary. Consequently, Constanza Manuel, daughter of Don Juan Manuel, was rejected by the Castilian. The father rose seeking the help of Aragon, Alfonso XI could have war with Aragon and the Castilian nobles at the same time. Cities such as Valladolid, León, Toro and Zamora rebelled at the abuse of power by Alvar Núñez Osorio, Count of Castile. The truce with Aragon agreement reached with the wedding of Alfonso IV and Eleanor, sister of the Castilian king. This prompted Don Juan Manuel surrender in 1330, being forgiven.

In 1331 two major events occurring in the life of Alfonso XI: his meeting with Leonor de Guzman, which became his official mistress, the true queen who impersonates the failed Maria of Portugal, the mother of the legitimate heir arrival at the Court Alfonso de la Cerda, who paid him homage. The departure of Mary of Portugal led to the cooling of relations with Portugal. In 1332, Alfonso XI was crowned in Burgos, where they attended Don Juan Manuel and Don Juan Núñez de Lara. The quarrel between the king and these magnates were poisoned earlier this year when the Brotherhood of the Brotherhood of Álava Lordship rejected the scheme. The king won something unexpected: the loyalty of Alava lineages, the most remote origin of the nobility trastamarista. In 1336, Don Juan Manuel stood a vast coalition of malcontents, including highlighting Portugal Alfonso IV and Pedro IV of Aragon. Alfonso XI But pressed on the two Castilian nobles, who would eventually surrender. From now on, the great Castilian monarch could govern without opposition.

In the fourteenth century Castile is when power becomes formidable when the cattle and African gold impulse allows the opening of trade routes solid. Since 1324, the Castilian merchants had free access to the ports of Aquitaine who were under British administration. Then began a terrible struggle between England and France (the Hundred Years War), in which preferred to remain neutral Castilla, negotiating with both sides and take advantage of a revolt status. The Castilian monarch eluded too strong commitments in Paris concluded a friendship treaty that allowed the French ships Cantabrian hire for your service, in exchange for reciprocal free trade.

In 1338 ships brought Castilian block Channel. When the next year to break the blockade the British winning the Battle of the Locks of Bruges, the Spaniards were not among the losers.

Curious position of King of Castile to his subjects was that he was inclined to negotiate Basques ever more closely with Edward III, the Court and the clergy preferred the friendship of France. Alfonso XI ran to and fro movements. But the war evolve in a manner favorable to France, King of Castile opened their ears to the pressures of the Pope and signed an alliance with Philip VI (1345), risking losing the friendship even English. Gil Bocanegra, Genoese admiral in the service of Castile, was to take charge of a fleet of 200 ships against the English.

In 1348 Cortes de Alcalá prosecutors asked the king to end, negotiating, to the damage that caused the English pirates. When the king died, nothing was resolved concerning external partnerships, except on one point: the preferences of the third estate were going to England, the clergy and nobility to France.

The Court met as regularly, demonstrating the support that the monarchy was getting the third state. It is very logical for cities real authority guarantee against abuses and violations of the domains. Much of the support was economic. In the second Alcalá Courts Ordinance was promulgated the famous, drawing on the doctrine of the items, then officially qualified legal standard for the whole kingdom, intended to create, for the first time legislative unity. It was the end of arrival for a process of political maturity.

– The Battle of the Strait

In the Nazarite kingdom of Granada Muhammad IV ascended the throne, facing a serious internal crisis that would star the vizier al-Mahruq and ‘Uthman, who eventually murdered the vizier, breaking the possibility of returning to civilian rule. Meanwhile, Alfonso XI available forces in the border. The Battle of the Strait entered its decisive phase.

In 1327, the first campaign against the nazarís, Alfonso XI won Olvera, Pruna, Ayamonte and the Tower of Alhaquín. The internal discord Granada fu the best help. A Muhammad IV could do was ask for help from Marinids or arrange peace with Castile. In 1331, he signed a truce in order to contain the thrust Castilian and gain time to regroup his battered forces. Alfonso XI had to accept because they also needed time to fight the nobles. The king of Granada went to Africa and returned with an army of 5,000 Marinids, taking over Gibraltar. The two kings met to negotiate a settlement, but without success. The Return of the King of Granada, he was murdered by knights Zenetes fearful of Moroccan alliance.

The murderers proclaimed themselves king Abu-l-Hajjaj Yusuf, brother of the deceased. Yusuf I give you definitive voluntary organization of faith, defensive bulwark of the kingdom, now directly under the crown. Two famous characters were successively viziers, Abu-l-Un’ayn Ridwan and Ibn al-Khatib. With your help, Yusuf I reorganized and centralized the administration and the Great Madrasa reform to make it authentic Granada University. Although the king of Granada sought to preserve peace, it was impossible: taken between two expanding imperialism was forced to choose, and chose the path of Morocco. Taking advantage of the internal difficulties of Castile, Alfonso XI obtained from four-month truce that was to become, in 1334, four years alone, including Morocco.

The announced Moroccan army, commanded by ‘Abd Al-Malik, landed in the Peninsula in 1339. The Spaniards were prepared and a joint fleet of Castile and Aragon defeated the Muslims, cut off their communications with the rear bases and made possible the defeat and death of ‘Abd al-Malik. During a long and exhausting summer, withstood the onslaught Marinids rate, while Alfonso XI concentrated his army in Seville and hoped the aid of Alfonso IV of Portugal. In October of that year the combined forces of the Christian kings achieved the decisive victory of the Salado, the last of the great battles of the Reconquista.

The Marinids were driven from the Peninsula. Yusuf I, but only participated in the great battle, might fear that Christians even to decide to launch the final assault on Granada.In 1341 Alfonso XI conquered Alcalá la Real, Priego, and Matrera Benamejí and the following year began the siege of Algeciras, which lasted until March 1344. Yusuf I was defeated in the course of this siege, signing a peace to which it adhered Morocco. But in 1350, Alfonso XI died besieging Gibraltar, because of the plague that was sweeping across the West.

– The continuation of an idea: Pedro I

Upon the death of Alfonso XI, was only one legitimate son to succeed him, Pedro, who was 15 years. The figure of Peter I, called the Cruel or the Just, is passionate for historians: sometimes depicted as a psychopath who did not apply a proportion due to the faults of his nobles when it came to execute punishment.

Just dead Alfonso XI, Guzman and Ponce de León is fortified in their domains. Leaning Juan Nunez de Lara and Fernando Infante in his favor, gave Juan Alfonso de Albuquerque, Portuguese power. In August 1350, broke the delicate balance between real members of the Curia. Juan Alfonso de Albuquerque was decided in favor of the candidacy of Fernando Infante, Juan Nunez de Lara, with the support of Manuel, met troops in Burgos: Albuquerque won thank to death of Fernando Manuel and Juan Núñez de Lara.

Outside Albuquerque and his advisers abandoned neutrality in favor of France bowed. Edward III of England entered into negotiations that led to the signing of a rather generous, but guaranteeing him against naval actions, preventing Castilian aid to France.

Albuquerque’s government lasted until 1353, at which time he had to take refuge with the Master of the Order of Calatrava after the opposition of the nobility by the failed attempt to marry Peter Blanche of Bourbon. Meanwhile, Tello of Castile became lord of Biscay.

Now it was the nobles who triumphed in Castile, born a conspiracy between Albuquerque, the Infante Don Pedro of Portugal, and Frederic Henry of Castile and Castro, which also counted with the support of Pope Innocent VI to overthrow the king Pedro I. The king now had the support of Padilla and the princes of Aragon, which finally seeing the plight of the Castilian king went over to the rebel side. Among the rebel faction, was preferred as a replacement for Peter I of Castile Henry, but after the meeting in rebel Toro and Peter I, Henry stayed on the sidelines, dividing government posts between the Infante Ferdinand, Chancellor, Fernando de Castro , and Frederic steward, waiter.

But Peter agreed to regain power, attracting the various members of the rebel faction, where the differences begin to emerge: the princes of Aragon and Alvaro Perez de Castro joined the king now. The king began the bloody repression that would give infamous. The submission to the king was fast, and unless Toro, where they stayed and Frederic Henry, who remained rebellious all Castile were pacified.

– The war against Aragon

The Civil War left two sequels: the enmity of Pope Innocent VI to Peter I and the presence, in Aragon and Portugal, with strong core of knights exiled to the Castilian monarch deemed essential to remove.

Infants Fernando and Juan de Aragon had renewed their pressure to revive the old claims, in pledge of allegiance offered to Peter I’s castles Orihuela and Alicante, within the territory of Pedro IV, who refused to accept such perks. Moreover, the war between Genoa and Venice encourage the fight between Aragon and Castile, the last ally of Genoa, the enemy of Aragon.

Upon the rupture between Castile and France, the French came to Catalonia in search of vessels. A fleet of 12 ships captured in Sanlucar de Barrameda Placentinos two merchant ships, which the Catalans branding of Genoese. Pedro I protested, throwing an ultimatum that Pedro IV ignored: war broke out. Pedro IV, weaker than the Castilian king, decided to unite in a solid block to the outcasts and enemies of Castile, and making Henry of Castile at the top of the Spaniards.

Peter hostilities began seizing Orihuela and Alicante in 1356, and planned the offensive on three fronts: on Játiva, Aragon and Valencia. The fighting in border polarized between Borja and Tarazona. In the first of them was Henry of Castile, while the latter fell to Castile in 1357. Then he signed a truce confession of weakness on the part of Pedro IV, were opened in Tudela, peace negotiations: cessation of hostilities was for one year; Alicante and Tarazona were deposited in the hands of the papal legate to issue an arbitration award. But Peter refused to give Tarazona and was excommunicated (1357).

In this brief period of peace, Castilla got the alliance with Portugal, and England was sought, framed slowly Castilian-Aragonese rivalry in all of the Hundred Years War. In 1358, we attempted a coup against Peter I in Seville, who angered and executed Fadrique of Castile and the Infante Don Juan, while Tello de Vizcaya managed to escape. It then resumed the fight with Aragon.

Enrique and Fernando had launched its offensive in the land of Soria and Murcia respectively. For months I was preparing its response Pedro sea. In August, the Spaniards seized Guardamar: major event that marks the beginning of its penetration into the Mediterranean. Meanwhile, a new legacy, Guido Bologna, went on a peace mission. Pedro I as a condition of peace required the restitution of land were lost from Alicante to Fernando IV, but negotiations were unsuccessful.

The fleet that sailed from Seville to the orders of the brothers Bocanegra was the largest naval force ever to cross the Strait. The fleet reached Barcelona in 1359, but their attacks failed and retreated to Ibiza, Tortosa and then to Calpe.

Enrique of Castile called for the offensive, and made an entry in the Moncayo who beat Fernando de Castro. Some months later gave Tarazona for treason to the Aragonese. Enrique of Castile Pedro IV convinced of the need to launch an offensive. In April 1360, the troops were marching towards Burgos. The royal forces him to step out and Henry was forced to retreat to Haro and Najera, where did suffer a defeat that break all the offensive Aragon. Najera military success, he joined the diplomatic double victory in Portugal and England. Eduardo Castilla leaned III simply because of the common enmity with France. Consequently, the Aragonese sought peace. In 1361 agreement was signed. But this only served to Peter I solve the problems of succession and train an army for the next phase of the war.

In 1362, Peter I and Charles II of Navarre signed an alliance against Aragon and France. The Spaniards began their offensive taking Calatayud, after which advanced to Zaragoza. Pedro Cortes IV decided to convene in Monzón for them the resources to bring back to Henry of Castile, who had been deported to France. He had befriended the knights of the mercenary companies that offered to the fight against Castile in exchange for a large sum of money that could not muster Pedro IV.

Pedro I spent the winter in Seville, where he died his heir Alfonso, and then declared that the estate belonged to the three daughters of Maria de Padilla: Beatrice, Constance and Elizabeth. After it resumed the offensive, tightening the noose on Zaragoza. The presence of troops from Navarre, Portugal and Granada in the army of Peter I gave a sense of joint action in this third phase of the war. Pedro I made the decision to abandon the siege of Zaragoza to move against the Valencian land. Pedro IV had no choice but to make peace.

In July 1363 peace was signed in Murviedro. The exiled Spaniards were expelled again. Calatayud, Tarazona and Teruel, with all its castles, were annexed to Castile, as a dowry of Jeanne, daughter of Pedro IV, who was to marry Pedro I. The occupied part of Valencia reinstating the dowry of Isabella was to marry Alfonso of Aragon.

ITEM 13:

THE CASTILLA Trastamara.

– Henry II and John I: the consolidation of the dynasty Trastamara.

– The exercise of the royal supremacy: Henry III.

– Kings, nobles and favorites:
John II and Henry IV.

– Henry II and John I

The establishment of the dynasty in Castile Trastámara was more than a mere change of a reigning family of the other. Certainly, he had to make concessions to the nobles who helped him aa. But at the same time encouraged the development of centralized institutions of government, a task that followed his successors. Moreover, the final decades of XIV century knew moments of high Castilian-Leonese. In another vein, Castilla reached in the last decades of XIV century a remarkable internationally, both within the mainland and in Europe.
Henry II (1369-1379) lost no opportunity of strengthening the royal power, for which a task at hand was to develop the governing bodies of central administration. With the system on administration of justice, wielded by the Cortes of Toro in the year 1371, was the first step, to decide to set up a supreme court justice, court.
Certainly the institution not built in a vacuum, since it had its precedents in previous reigns, but it was Henry II who, with certainty, the organized and systematized. The audience, composed initially of seven judges, accompanied the king on the go.Years later, in 1387, would increase to ten the number of judges, while four seats were set for the operation, on a regular basis, of that court. In 1390 it was agreed to install the Hearing. Aupado Henry II to the throne had been largely because of the high nobility. However, within the court was necessary to distinguish two areas of nobility on the one hand, the nobility made up the king’s relatives, called Trastamaras and second, the nobility of service, consisting of people addicted to the new monarch, as Fernandez de Velasco, the Mendoza, the Álvarez de Toledo, etc. Henry II was based mainly on the latter, which gave key positions in government. Besides the death of his brother Tello, Lord of Biscay, decided to give that title to the heir to the throne, his son, which meant its integration in the Crown.
The beginning of the reign of Henry II were difficult, not only for the survival of some pockets in favor of Pedro I, but also by the hostility of the other peninsular kingdoms. Particularly strong was the attitude of Aragon, who claimed the delivery of Murcia, commitment is not satisfied with Enrique. In 1373 he made peace with Portugal and Navarre. In 1375 the Treaty of Almazán put an end to the discord with Aragon: Castilla recovered counties who had gone to obedience Aragonese, as Molina Manor and at the same time, arranged the marriage of the heir of Henry II, Prince Juan , a daughter of Ceremonious, Leonor. Following this peace, the hegemony of the Crown of Castile in the concert of the Christian kingdoms peninsular seemed unquestionable. In the international arena Castilla alliance with France led to the former’s participation in the Hundred Years War, after the resumption of the conflict. So, the ship Castilian, allied with the French fleet, were a resounding success against the English at La Rochelle (1372). Shortly after the Castilian Admiral Fernán Sánchez de Tovar plundered the Isle of Wight and the south coast of England. The naval force of Castile had been fully demonstrated.

(1379-1390), successor of Henry II, continued the task of strengthening the royal power. Courts in the year 1385 created the Royal Council, a body derived from the ancient royal curia ordinary: the royal council was a kind of permanent representation in the Cortes in the government of the kingdom, whose main mission was to advise the monarch the exercise of their functions. The new institution was the subject of numerous changes. Two years after its creation, in 1387, he entered into the Council to four doctors lawyers, disappeared while the third state representation. A new reform of 1459, he took up composition in eight lawyers, two bishops and two knights. All indications are, therefore, that the royal council became primarily a technical body, since the total service of political centralization and strengthening of royal power. Moreover, Juan I continued to struggle with the epigones Trastamaras whose visible in those years was the Earl of Noreña. Internationally, the king of Castilla maintained his loyalty to the alliance with France.
The most acute problem that was faced Juan I came on Portuguese soil. Widower of his first wife, the Castilian monarch, as agreed in the peace of Elvas in 1382, his second marriage to Princess Lusitanian, daughter of the king of Portugal. When he died in 1383, was heir to the Portuguese throne as Beatrice. Juan I then went to the neighboring country to take possession of the kingdom on behalf of his wife.But there had already formed a faction hostile to Castile, led by the Master of the Order of Avis: side he was encouraged mainly by the bourgeoisie of the maritime cities and who were in the international order, with the help of England. Open military hostilities, the Spaniards came to lay siege to Lisbon (1384), but had to leave before the spread of plague. The following year the Spaniards were defeated, first in Troncoso, in May and in August, so loud, in Aljubarrota. While on the throne of Portugal was based, the head of a new dynasty of Castile suffered a blow to their aspirations.
But all ended in Aljubarrota. The Duke of Lancaster, married to a daughter, landed in Galicia in 1386. Its purpose was to occupy the Castilian throne, who claimed belonged to his wife. John I, who had gathered at the end of 1386 the Cortes of Castile and Leon in the city, gave a brilliant speech to them in justifying their legitimate rights to the throne, while rejecting the claims of the Duke of Lancaster. The troops of John of Gaunt Leon continued to land, but they met stiff resistance. Finally, Lancaster decided to retire. In 1388 agreement was reached to Bayonne, which stipulated the marriage of the heir of Castile, a daughter of English. Thus, to unite in marriage descendants of Peter I and is given by the lawsuit resolved by the succession of Castile, who crept from the days of.

– The exercise of the royal supremacy: Henry III

The deaths of very young, leaving as heir to the throne a child, (1390-1406). The struggle for control of the Council of Regency, which was finally established in the Courts of Madrid in 1391, was extremely hard, as the “Great” of the kingdom understood that their role was diluted in a crowded Council. Special role on that occasion was the archbishop of Toledo, a supporter of strict compliance with the will of John I. It would be precisely that situation which led to the outbreak in June 1391, violent.
Since Henry III took over effective power sharpened the struggle against the epigones Trastamaras. In the end the most important members of that group, mostly relatives of the king, as Noreña Count or Duke of Benavente, were defeated. They are very significant in this regard such facts as that the Duke of Benavente was taken prisoner, or the Earl of Noreña had to flee the peninsula. On the other hand, had consolidated his power, the nobility of service, which were typical representatives, under Henry III, Chief Justice Estúñiga Diego Lopez, Butler Juan Hurtado de Mendoza, the constable.
The time of Henry III was dominated in the international arena and for peace. So, while continuing the alliance with France improved relations with England, which allowed the resumption of trade relations with India. On the other hand, the interest of Henry III in the Mediterranean, eastern end of which heralded the Turkish danger, led to the Castilian monarch to plan a deal no more and no less than Tatars. To that end Castilla left an embassy which has preserved a beautiful and detailed account, written by, a leading member of the expedition. Furthermore, it should be noted the support given by Henry III to the campaigns of the French adventurer in the Canaries. That would be the starting point of the Castilian presence in the “Fortunate Islands.”

– John II and Henry IV

John II was the successor of Henry III. His mother and his uncle, the future King of Aragon, will assume the regency until he comes of age. The double Regency is a permanent source of conflicts that require dividing the kingdom into two constituencies. Fernando acquired a solid reputation as a ruler to take Antequera in 1410 and a position of strength will be decisive for appointment (Compromiso de Caspe, 1412).
The emergence of cities in the courts as a third element at play foreshadows a conflict and fully modern. Internal dissension will also impact on the external. Thus, Aragon and Navarra, ruled by the princes of Aragon, Castilla will be permanent rivals, while Portugal and especially France, are allies of the Castilian crown. Another element to consider is the set of valid, representative of real power, it will acquire great importance in the person of, constable and master of Santiago, which represent the strength of the crown against the claims of the nobility and will defend the interests of Castile against the crown of Aragon. The defeat of Aragon and Navarre in the battle of Olmedo puts the Castilian monarchy at its height, while weakening internal dissent represented by the noble estate. However, the Castilian nobility will not cease to confront the power of the favorite, considered excessive. Thus, in 1453 Álvaro de Luna is deposed by the king, in a fall sponsored by Prince of Asturias, and his second wife, Isabel of Portugal (mother).
On the other hand, lived for a few years Castilla demographic and economic splendor, authorized by the increase in exports (wool, iron, wine) to European markets. This good situation allows the development of institutions that prefigure. John II died in 1454 in Valladolid.

Son of Castile and Maria of Aragon, Henry IV, before the throne, and intervened in the turbulent Castilian politics of the time, with your favorite Juan Pacheco. In 1440 married Blanca de Navarra, separating from her in 1443 by impotence. A year later accedes to the throne. House again in 1455 with Joan of Portugal, to ensure cooperation between the two kingdoms.
Its mandate runs until 1462 without significant alterations. This year, renewing the harassment against the Moorish kingdom of, attempts to reconcile with the “Great of Spain fled to Aragon and Catalonia agree to the throne, offered by the Catalans themselves, unhappy with Aragon. Precisely the Catalan question causes, from 1463, the disgrace of the nobles closest to the king (John Pacheco) for loss of confidence in the Council, and the rise of new forms, such as Mendoza and Beltran de la Cueva .
Between 1463 and 1468, the disaffected nobles undertake a campaign against Henry IV and developed the Manifesto of Burgos (1464), which are criticized various aspects of management of the monarch, including protests from the cities and criticized the succession to throne in the person of his daughter, considered the fruit of adultery with the Queen Juana Beltran de la Cueva. The pressure of the nobles forced the king to relent and recognize as heir to his brother Alfonso, establishing a commission to analyze the crisis and seek an opinion that the pacification of Castile. This opinion, Case Medina del Campo (1465), sign unfavorable to the interests of Henry IV, pushes him to fight the rebels, who became king Alfonso respond. The fighting will continue for three years until the death of Alfonso (1468).
The succession issue is not resolved yet. Alfonso’s supporters now provide support for the sister of the king, contrary to the daughter of the monarch. Isabel will be recognized as heir by the Treaty of the Bulls Guisando, but the defense of the monarchical cause which makes your allies start from his side and move to defend the nomination of Joan, his former enemy. The treaty Alcaçovas, 1479, shall cease to Elizabeth as the only pretender to the throne, and Queen of Castile, for the death of his father in 1474.

ITEM 14:

THE CROWN OF ARAGON AND THE MEDITERRANEAN (S. XIV).

– Jaime II and Mediterranean expansion.

– The Catalan-Aragonese splendor: the colonial empire of Peter IV.

– Nobility and Monarchy in Aragon.

– Mediterranean Companies.

– The Crown until the Humane Martin: the extinction of the House of Barcelona.

– Jaime II and Mediterranean expansion

James II (1291-1327) ascended the throne after the death of his brother Alfonso III. One of his first actions was to sign a truce with Castile, as the defense against the Castilian alliance Marinids advised. The Aragon married a daughter of Sancho IV, Isabel, and the Spaniards sent a contingent to the aid of Aragon if there was a French attack, also divided the parties of influence in North Africa for a possible invasion, reserving Castilla Morocco , and Aragon the territories east of Mulu. The agreement also Castilian-Aragonese Aragonese collaboration was agreed in the Castilian attack rate, which resulted in sending ten ships.

Aragon needed peace to deal with opposition movement of the nobility. For this he needed the cooperation of Castilla in his conflict with Charles of Valois by Sicily. The Frenchman asked for the resignation of James II to the island kingdom, while the Aragonese king offered only the creation of a vassal of the Kingdom of Sicily, which should fall into the hands of his brother Frederic. Hearings were held in Logroño (1293), which caused the breakdown of friendship between the two Iberian monarchies. After that, James II met with Charles of Anjou in La Junquera, giving the King of Aragon to Sicily in return for financial compensation for his brother Frederic. In this interview, probably James II recognized the rights of Carlos to Naples, then broke his relations with Castile returning to the Princess Elizabeth to be free to marry Blanche of Anjou. Later, in Anagni, Pope Boniface VIII to James II offered a large sum of money for the resignation of Sicily, the Aragonese accepting the offer.

This action was a major setback for the Catalans in the Mediterranean: James II renounced Sicily, Majorca and Menorca, the latter two relapsed in the hands of his uncle James II, and the Aran valley lay in the hands of Cardinal William of Ferraris to know who was truly the territory.

The Treaty of Anagni was not accepted by the Parliament of Sicily, who forcibly removed the papal ambassadors, and Frederic was crowned king in 1296. The victories achieved by Blasco de Alagon the service of Frederic, led to Boniface VIII at Anagni require the conditions in their entirety. Jaime II, invested with the crown of Corsica and Sardinia (1297), announced that it would take command of an expedition to throw Frederic of Sicily. The following year he sent an army that besieged Syracuse quickly, but without achieving any success, he returned to Barcelona. Yet, that same year, James II back to Sicily, achieving victory in Cape Orlando, where the captives were executed, which was enough for the King of Aragon. However, Aragon was a thorn, which is that the Catalans sent to allow relief to Frederic Angevin resist attacks and even get victories as important as those of Falconara (1299) and Gagliano (1300). Finally, peace was negotiated in Caltabellotta (1302) which recognized the independence of Sicily, leaving the island in the commercial sector Catalan.

James II had not come in peace. His diplomacy worked with speed to assemble a coalition of interests in the overthrow of Ferdinand IV and his troops launched the attack in 1296 by flying the flag of Alfonso de la Cerda. The plan was to give the two kingdoms, León and Castilla, Don Juan and Alfonso de la Cerda, respectively. While James II attacked the kingdom of Murcia, Juan Alfonso bequeathed to Palencia and Sahagun was proclaimed king. Then the king of Aragon was away fighting in Castilla to focus on the fight to take over the kingdom of Murcia. Don Juan Manuel, on the border of Murcia, did not know or could not resist the thrust of Aragon: the whole kingdom surrendered, but the Aragonese could not reach the border of Granada because the Spaniards kept Alcalá, Lorca and Mula. In 1300, James II managed to take these three strengths, but when the Spaniards rallied, forcing the King of Aragon to withdraw into Murcia. In 1303, they signed the truce with Castile, the Castilian kingdom withdrew its borders to a line roughly coincides with the current division of the provinces of Murcia and Alicante: Cartagena, Elche, Santa Pola, Guardamar, Alicante, Orihuela and Villena were within the kingdom of Valencia. Jaime Cartagena II resigned after that Don Juan Manuel Alarcón surrender to the King of Castile.

The Aragonese king had achieved the target crown and the Crown of Aragon increased proportions while showing superior strength to Castile.

The Crown of Aragon lived times of great successes had increased its border in the southeast peninsula, had recovered the valley of Aran, the terms of Anagni gave him the right to occupy Corsica and Sardinia. It is at this time that the Knights Templar is condemned by the Papacy, and property in Aragon passed to a new institution created by King, the Order of Montesa, was created at the University of Lleida and Zaragoza became chair Metropolitan Church. But above all, the reign of James II is associated with the conquest of Sardinia and the issue of Almogavars East.

The annexation of Sardinia was delayed due to economic difficulties and the need to prepare action diplomatically. The island was under a very effective protectorate of Pisa and Genoa. Catalan troops embarked in May 1321 under the command of Crown Prince, Alfonso, and Catalan flags only. In Lucocisterna (1324) was the decisive battle, which became a great victory Catalan. In June of that year he signed the capitulation Pisa and Genoa showed a more favorable attitude for the Catalan annexation of the island of Sardinia, Pisa was removed keeping only its factory in Cagliari but subject to vassalage Catalan.

The issue of veterans came to the East Sicily because of the signing of Caltabellotta, by which the troops of professionals, Almogavars, Fadrique who fought in Sicily, became unemployed. The Byzantine Emperor, Andronicus Palaeologus, the contract to use them as a defense against the Ottoman Turks. He held the command Roger de Flor, whom the emperor granted him the title of grand duke and the hand of his niece. The great company of 6,500 soldiers, 39 ships sailed in 1302. In September and were in Constantinople, starting next month its operations against the Turks, defeated in Artaki, after which part of the army decided to disband and go, under the command of Fernan Jimenez of sand, placed under the command of Guy Laroche, Duke of Athens. The Byzantine Empire to pay delayed the Almogavars, and Roger de Flor had to advance money. The army retired to Magnesia to hibernate and standby to come from Catalonia new reinforcements, who arrived in 1304. The great army marched into Anatolia achieved the biggest win. However, the Byzantine governor of Magnesia and destroyed the garrison almogávar Roger de Flor was taken justice into their own hands.

Soon after, Andronicus II Almogavars claimed to fight against the Bulgarians. In April 1305, the co-emperor Michael IX murdered Roger de Flor and his companions. Berenguer de Entenza took supreme command of the Almogavars; Berenguer ambushed Genoa to Genoa and was taken prisoner. Without relief chief, the Almogavars be relegated Gallipoli, where horrific attacks launched by the country: these actions would be called “Catalan vengeance.” For six years the company became a formidable army of anarchy and destruction. In 1310, the Duke of Athens hired to Almogavars; guests uncomfortable, tried to get rid of them after a few months, but then rose up, killed him and took possession of his duchy. They chose as Duke Manfred, son of Frederic of Sicily, and his descendants, all of whom ruled by vicars. In this way the Duchy of Athens was incorporated into the crown of Pedro IV in 1379.

– The Catalan-Aragonese splendor: the colonial empire of Peter IV

The reign of Pedro IV (1336-1387) coincides with the maximum expansion of Catalonia in the Mediterranean and the general crisis of the Black Death. The first measures of his government would strengthen its authority over the concessions of his father, Alfonso IV, Queen Eleanor of Castile and his two sons, Fernando and Juan. Thus, in the courts of Valencia (1336) ordered the confiscation of property against them, then welcomed Don Juan Manuel, then by default, to match aid Alfonso XI lent his enemies. Began an undeclared war with Castile that would end with the signing of a peace (1338) that made Eleanor and their children to recover their estates and assist Aragon to Castile in the Battle of the Strait.

– Nobility and Monarchy in Aragon

The attitude of the nobility was open independence from the monarch. The brother, Jaime, Count of Urgel, was considered head of the establishment and Pedro IV attributed the responsibility for certain concerns and criticisms. Pedro IV in 1344 enacted the ordinances which regulated the government of his house, his Foreign Ministry and its Chapel, draft bureaucracy in the service of the monarchy. Pedro IV, concerned about his succession, had only two daughters, began consultations on the desirability of the largest, Constance, was recognized as the heir.The Count of Urgel was violently opposed private attorney general: the revolt began. From Zaragoza, Jaime de Urgel invited the nobles and cities to restore the Union, a privilege, to prevent abuse of the king and called his brothers, Fernando and Juan, who came from Castile. Pedro IV went to Barcelona where he left open the status of heir to the Princess.

Following the advice of his aides, Pedro IV decided to go to Zaragoza, but before signing a document declaring void secret concessions, lack of freedom, we were torn. In the city it was practically a prisoner: the courts dismissed the faithful counselors, demanded the repeal of the principle of Constance, compliance grants Fernando and Juan, the restoration of the Count of Urgell in the Procuratorate and the annual call for cuts in the feast of All Saints. The king then called Bernardo Cabrera and made him chief steward and began to attract a number of leaders of the Union.

When Valencia unionists demanded his presence, decided to go, but with an army raised by money from the dowry of Eleanor of Portugal, whom he married in Barcelona. But he suffered two defeats that destroyed his army and allowed the Unionists to take the king and queen to the capital. There, Fernando had to appoint deputy and attorney general. In 1348 a riot broke out and the rebels stormed the palace. Pedro IV faced with courage to revolt and plague began to spread that allowed him to escape to meet with Bernardo Cabrera operating against unionists. At the Cortes of Zaragoza in 1348, Pedro IV tore and burned the Privilege swore while the kingdom was traditional.

Valencia withstood several months after the victory of Mislata, Pedro IV occupied the capital and began the process of punishment. Then the King, widow again, married Eleanor of Sicily, the sister of King Frederic, where born John, who became Duke of Gerona.

– Mediterranean Companies

Jaime III, King of Mallorca, refused to pay feudal homage to Pedro IV, who did in 1339. But when the King of Aragon went to Avignon to pay homage to the Pope for Sardinia and Corsica, was disgusted with the French influence in the Papacy and the support it lent to James III. The following year war broke out between Mallorca and France Montpellier, so Jaime III went to seek help from Pedro IV, who refused to provide it. The Aragonese king appealed to one of his tricks: Cortes convened in March 1341, and if not come Jaime III could be declared unfair by ceasing the obligation to help. This was done. The King of Aragon arranged after the start of a judicial process to which were added the charges of misuse of minting money and the illegal movement of foreign parts. Jaime III did not attend and was condemned as contumacious to the loss of all his possessions.

Mallorca received with indifference the change of king. In 1343, the fleet of Pedro IV came to Santa Ponza and did order the annexation of the island and was crowned king in June of that year. James III was defeated at the Battle of Llucmajor (1349).

Inner peace in Sardinia was disrupted by frequent quarrels between the Oria and the Malaspina. Pedro IV and negotiating with potential allies against Genoa, and managed to attract a field of Oria and the republic of Pisa. The king signed an alliance with Venice (1351). The Aragonese Empire was entering a war that stretched from one end and another in the Mediterranean.Very cruel struggle in which they were involved larger commercial interests, soon linked with the peninsular wars since Castilla was a close ally of Genoa. The war itself led the Aragonese sovereign to seek the help of all subjects in Sicily, in Athens or in Byzantium, were established. Bernardo Cabrera, commanding a large fleet, defeated the Genoese to Alghero in 1353. Genoa confessed his defeat placing themselves under the protection of the Visconti of Milan. The Catalans were unable to impose peace in Sardinia, the same Pedro IV had to be moved to the island with a fleet to succumb to the island in 1355.

In Sicily, Pedro IV got the agreement to marry his daughter Constance Fadrique and send a contingent to expel the Angevin. Upon the death of Frederic in 1377, Pedro IV was recognized as king. Then also received a tribute from Athens and Neopatria.

– The Crown until the Humane Martin: the extinction of the House of Barcelona

Pedro IV’s successor was his son John I (1387-1395), whose reign was punctuated by the continuous confrontation with his stepfather, the Earl of Armangac who invaded the Empordà, arriving to Girona, which was rejected by Martin’s brother John I, and future King of Aragon. Aragonese king also faced a rebellion in Sardinia, the disaster in the development of his administration and the financial crisis of the Catalans. But his reign also had some decent things of note, as the introduction of the Floral Games of Barcelona, where they gathered evidence and literary troubadours of the time to reward their creations.

At his death in a hunt, had no sons, so his brother Martin I (1395-1410) succeeded him. When I appointed Martin new king, he was in Sicily, fighting against the nobility that he disputed the exercise of authority, so that his wife, María de Luna of Aragon made as regent until the arrival of her husband following year.

Overall it was a reign of peace abroad, which intensified fighting between factions of nobility in the interior. Entire reign was marked by the schism of the Church, Martin remained an ally of the Benedict XIII, who was a relative of the queen. He took his protection to the point of intervening militarily in Avignon, saving the siege of which was submitted to and welcomed in their states (1403).

Moreover, Martin I led two crusades against North Africa in 1398 and 1399, and his son Martin of Sicily got put to the nobility of Sardinia in 1408 after the victory at the Battle of San Luis and that meant the final peace the island.

Martin I died without direct succession, and had only a bastard grandson Fadrique. This led to an interregnum of two years in which the struggle for succession to the throne of Aragon resulted in the inauguration of Fernando of Castile as the new king of Aragon.

ITEM 15:

CASPE COMMITMENT: THE Trastamara IN ARAGON.

– The Compromise of Caspe and the enthronement of Trastámara.

– Alfonso V.

– Civil wars and interventions Castilian.

– The government of Juan II.

– The Compromise of Caspe and the enthronement of Trastámara

The heir to the throne, Martin the Younger, king of Sicily, and the only surviving son had suffered, died in 1409 without legitimate offspring were to happen, so his father, made heir to her own son, joined Sicily to its sovereignty. In fact, Martin Young left an illegitimate son, Frederic, the king of Aragon took her to his court, but did not dare to legitimate immediately, to avoid breaking the prevailing inheritance customs. Then, seeking the necessary offspring, King Martin, fifty-one years old and widowed, remarried Marguerite de Prades (1409), a young man of twenty years, would not give the child expected. The pretenders to the crown, especially Luis de Calabria (grandson of the female line) of the House of Anjou, and Jaime de Urgel (male line grandson of) then began to show their aspirations, but the Humane Martin gave no step, no doubt because he wanted to gain time to gradually elevate his grandson, Frederic bastard, an operation that never had the backing of the Courts and. In these circumstances there was illness and death of the king who, apparently, in the agony reached an affirmative answer to the question of whether he wanted the succession would fall on whom justice should apply.
The death of the King (1410), apparently the only candidates with the potential, ie with supporters in all the kingdoms of the Crown, were Luis de Calabria and Jaime de Urgel. In Valencia and Aragon, the hostilities of the season then became factions who gave their support to one candidate or another, but their rivalry prevented the convening of parliament unit. Not so in Catalonia, where a parliament could only receive the ambassadors of those candidates and two new suitors, Alfonso de Gandía (male-line grandson) and (grandson of the female line), whose chances seemed remote.
For now, Fernando de Antequera, who was and had a huge family fortune, did not play fully its strengths, simply approached antiurgelistas factions of Aragon and Valencia, and established border forces. But the regent of Castile, after some time, he openly play to their potential, economic and military, and diplomatic skills, which earned him the support of the pope, who pledged the allegiance of the entire peninsula.
In 1411, the fear of a Civil War was justified, since the powerful kingdoms were divided into trastamaristas Urgell and to the point that were opposite in sign parliaments in Aragon and Valencia, where they were fought with weapons, and Catalonia if the unit remained a single Parliament, the divisions did, in fact, unresolved.
The decisive force then turned to Aragon, where the excommunication launched by Benedict XIII against Urgel, legitimized the trastamaristas, who received the pope charged to work to find a solution to the conflict of succession on the basis of entrusting the election of the new king a group of nine commissioners, three from each kingdom, who, meeting in Caspe, consider the rights of candidates and elected a ruler by a majority vote.While the Catalan parliament accepted the proposal (Concord Alcañiz, 1412), Aragonese and Castilian troops helped the trastamaristas from Valencia to defeat their opponents.
From this moment the situation was already very clearly favors.
The nine commissioners, meeting in Caspe, examined the claims of seven candidates (Jaime de Urgel, Luis de Calabria, Fernando of Aragon (the grandson of the king I is not legitimate), Alfonso de Gandía, his son Alfonso, and Juan de Prades, brother Alfonso de Gandia) and elected King of the Crown of Aragon, as expected, Fernando de Antequera (1412).

Following the ruling of the commitment of Caspe, the June 28, 1412, a year later, Ferdinand I, even had to overcome a revolt fomented by Jaime de Urgel. The Catalan oligarchy repeatedly forced him to sign agreements that limited the power of the monarchy, as in the years 1412 and 1413, before the Courts. As happened to their predecessors, the Mediterranean affairs occupied much of the concerns of its mandate: Sardinia pacify achieved through treaties with the Vicomte de Narbonne and Genoa, intervened in Sicily in support of the Dowager Queen Blanca and against Fadrique of Luna’s illegitimate son Martin the Younger, also named his second son John Viceroy of Sicily, Sardinia and Mallorca, and in 1414, concluded agreements with the Sultan of Egypt and the King of Fez.
Benedict XIII supported during the Western Schism, but withdrew his support after he was deposed at the Council of Constance (1416).

– Alfonso V

Ferdinand’s reign was short, but had just enough time to get in touch with the reality of the Crown. Of his son and successor (1416-1458) would be long and difficult, at least in terms of its relations with. Clan Chief Trastámara Aragon, Alfonso would have to divide their efforts between its member peninsular, where centuries of pact reduced capacity for action, the Mediterranean, where he was defending the positions of the Crown and saw opportunities to develop their own political action, and Castilla , where the family had strong positions, which may lead to some control of the whole peninsula.
The Magnanimous summoning Cortes began his reign in (1416), where he hoped to get grants to continue the fight against Genoa, but the nobles, unhappy that the monarchy continued its policy of asset recovery and because it was surrounded by Castilian advisers, refused to contribute and, however, protested against this policy and raised a constitutional reform package that the monarch disregarded. He then moved to where their demands for political support for the Mediterranean would find better response. Ready to leave for Italy, had returned to the Catalan Cortes in Sant Cugat and Tortosa (1419-20), where, in need of money for the expedition, gave in to demands of the Church, slowed the recovery policy and promised to solve specific assets grievances in return for which he received a donation.
In the absence of the Magnanimous, occupied the vicegerency his wife, Queen Marie, who wanted to reinvigorate the estate recovery policy allowing farmers meetings, responsible for collecting the money. The alarm caused reforming initiative between the classes, fearful of breaking the status quo and agrarian court, had an impact on the Courts of Tortosa-Barcelona, from 1421 to 1923, gathered by the queen to get subsidies with which to help.The estates offered indeed help, but he was forced to halt the reform policy, settle all outstanding claims from the previous reign, and accept that the Government would become an advocate and guardian of the laws of the land against any abusive use of King and his officers. When the courts were closed, the real authority was lost and irrecoverable positions nobility threatened a schism.

– Civil wars and interventions Castilian

When in 1436 V was fully embroiled in the struggle, and finally withdrew to return to Spain, appointed his brother lieutenant of Aragon and Valencia, and entrusted the direction of. The occasion to intervene in the authoritarian politics led the constable, which alarmed the “Great”, who formed a league (1439) and threatened to move the country toward Civil War. Called to play an arbitration role in the conflict, the princes of Aragon finally into the League and agreed to an alliance with his sister, Maria de Aragon, wife, against the Constable (1440). Although the monarch supported Alvaro de Luna, including weapons, allied to the king besieged in Medina del Campo and forced him to banish the Constable (1441).
For nearly three years Juan de Navarra ruled Castile while opened a new battlefront in Navarre, where death and succession of the Queen (1441) between the supporters of his son and heir, Prince, who was for the sequence (beamonteses ), and supporters of his father, Juan de Navarra, who wanted to retain power in their hands (agramonteses).
In 1443 Alvaro de Luna returned to the stage with intrigue that sought to confront the prince, heir of Castile, John of Navarre, who, growing feeling around the plot, arrested officials and the king himself (coup d’etat Ramage, 1443). It was a fatal decision that the constable did not fail to take this opportunity to present the kingdom as an enemy to their cause and win a prominent part of the great. Together they defeated the princes of Aragon in Olmedo (1445), where he was mortally wounded, and forced to leave Juan de Navarra Castilla. Then began a new war between Castile and Navarre, Aragon (1445-1954), which was extended because of the rivalries that soon emerged winner in the field, divided between supporters of the constable and the followers of Henry, Crown Prince of Castile. It was a border war during which and took the division of Navarre for an alliance with Carlos de Viana and turn on the (1451). In the following years, forced to divide his forces in Navarre and Aragon the border with Castilla, Juan de Navarra fought on the defensive until, by the peace of Agreda and Almazan (1454), had to accept his departure from politics Castilian and the loss of their assets in Castile.
Meanwhile, appointed lieutenant-general of Catalonia, presiding at meetings of the Parliament of 1454-58, which, as explained, would be dramatic, authentic, because of the clashes that took place in them between the monarchy , represented by the deputy and supported by the trustees of the reasons Barcelona, and the oligarchy pacts is fiercely opposed to the reform of Barcelona, the estate recovery policy and the provisions of King remensa friendly claims. While Alfonso V died in Naples (1458). His successor, Juan de Navarra, now John II of Aragon (1458-1479), inherited the policy of weakening the Catalan oligarchy and with it the tense atmosphere that their errors contribute to make Civil War four years later.

– The government of Juan II

Juan II initially had problems with Castile where the,, refused to satisfy some quantities stipulated in the peace of Agreda and Almazan. But the Mediterranean front presented grave difficulties: Unexpectedly, the Neapolitan barons revolted against Naples, the son and successor of Alfonso V, and offered the crown to René of Provence, who sent an army to southern Italy. Alarmed, Juan II met Cortes of Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia (1460-1961), who thought to ask for help to stop the offensive Angevin, but again interfered in his projects, his son. The fugitive prince, who lived at the court of Naples when Alfonso V died, had moved to Sicily where the estates, who aspired to greater independence, claimed for him the Lieutenancy and the designation of the Crown. Then realized that his stay on the island could provide encouragement for independence, and therefore ordered his return. Father and son then signed Concord (1460), which recovered Carlos income and possessions but were denied residency in Navarre and Sicily, and not giving them the birthright which he claimed.

The negotiations between Henry IV and Charles of Viana did suspect John II, who imprisoned his son, prompting protests from the Catalan government, the Generalitat, which threatened to take up arms against the king. The Prince of Viana was released and negotiations began between the monarch, represented by his wife, and a Catalan delegation that concluded with the signing of the Capitulation of Vilafranca del Penedès (1461): the king could not enter the Principality without the permission of its corporate representative would have to delegate all administrative and executive power in a perpetual and irrevocable lieutenant (and, failing that, the infant son of Juana Enriquez and Juan II), and the officers and staff appointed the king had to be approved by the Generalitat, the Council of One Hundred and the Council of the Principality.

The development of the new constitutional system encountered an unexpected obstacle, the premature death of Carlos de Viana (1461), which led to entrust the Lieutenancy, in fact, Queen Juana Enriquez as Prince Ferdinand then a little boy years. The crucial months of late 1461 and early 1462 the Queen worked to rebuild the royalist forces, which led to an estrangement with the authorities, who believed a coup hatched. This prompted members of the Government, be advanced to John II: Barcelona’s government expelled them from its midst the directors of the reasons, the Government decided to prosecute the alleged traitors and the Council of the Principality raised an army under the pretext to fight the remensa throughout the surrounding region that had taken up arms against feudal reaction (1462).
Tension grew to the point that Juana Enriquez, fearing for his life and his son, fled to Athens, where he thought he was safer. For the enemies of Juan II was clear evidence of his treachery. Repression then struck on the realistic and leaders of the reasons in Barcelona, while the army, raised by the Council of the Principality and led by the Earl of Pallars, he rushed on towards Athens the queen and her son, whom the remensa gave aid. Meanwhile, Juan II mortgaged his rights in the Roussillon and Cerdanya in favor of France in return for military aid. And they were, in fact, the troops of Louis XI that forced the lifting of the siege of Gerona. In parallel, considered a traitor for giving land Catalan France, came with troops in Catalonia, which was a violation of the terms of the Capitulation of Vilafranca, and therefore was declared a public enemy and stripped of the crown. At that time the radicals of both sides had made themselves masters of the situation and had already spread throughout Catalonia.

The positions and oppositions appeared clearly: on one side was constitutional, composed of the barons and feudal lords, the great and the patrician pacts, represented by Biga, who wanted to get rid of the royal dynasty, and on the opposite side, with the monarchy and the barons of the court, the reasons, artisans and peasants, about supporters of monarchical authoritarianism, a principle that was not the exclusive property of Trastamaras but had defended native monarchs of the dynasty as important as and, and, at the moment, inspired most of the European monarchies.
During the first war period (1462-1463), royalist forces won an important victory in Rubinat besieged with the help of the French and took Tarragona and Perpignan, while a meeting in Barcelona Parliament offered the crown of Castile (1462 ) that as a means of weakening the party Aragon his own kingdom. But John II, who was a skillful maneuver, encouraged Civil War in Castile, with the help of French King Henry IV managed to withdraw the lawsuit Catalan (1463).
During the second phase of the conflict (1463-1966), the Catalan institutions offered the crown to Peter Constable of Portugal (1463-1466), who did not get the military successes that he expected, and also obtained the necessary international support. However, international circumstances acquired a bias towards John II of Castile Henry IV was in full confrontation with its nobility and ally that had become a rival, saw a formidable coalition nobility stood before him. Safely behind him, King of Aragon could take Lérida (1464) and Tortosa (1466), while their hosts gained an important victory in Calaf (1465). The defections from the anti-realist side began to emerge, stimulated further by the attitude of the king, who had sworn to respect the constitution and issue a general pardon. In these circumstances, the unexpected death of Pedro de Portugal (1466) could have put an end to the fight if not for the minority radical anti-realist, freed from the moderates who had made desertion, rejected the peace proposal and offered the crown to René of Provence (1466).
At the beginning of the third and final phase of the conflict (1466-1972), the arrival in Catalonia of Juan de Lorraine, son of René and deputy, with French troops and Neapolitan, rebalance the forces. The antijuanistas won a victory in Viladamat (1467) and the capitulation of Athens (1469), but did not discourage John II was able to fight on all fronts, and now also had the effective assistance of his son, later named the Catholic. In foreign policy got the marriage of his son, sister of Castile and an alliance with England and Burgundy in France isolated. In domestic policy was the financial support of Aragon and Valencia.
Dead Juan de Lorraine (1470), his son John of Calabria led the forces of the Government in the final years of the conflict when the promises made by John II to respect the constitution and fatigue made a dent in their ranks. The royal armies then recovered and numerous villas Girona Emporda, El Valle and El Maresme (1471), and laid siege to, which was delivered in 1472 (Surrender of Pedralbes).
It was the end of a war so disastrous that the winner could not be vindictive: it freed the prisoners, were discontinued pending court cases, sentences were reversed related to the war, were returned confiscated property, the Government merged antijuanista with Johannite, the king swore in new constitutions, etc.

attempted to resolve some issues, such as the recovery by the arms of Roussillon and Cerdanya (1473-1475), where he failed, but in general stated unresolved. No solution to the conflict faced remensa, reform of the municipal government of Barcelona and outstanding constitutional issues, which should answer your child.